Environmental Engineering Reference
In-Depth Information
Table 5
Concentrations of chlorpyrifos (CPY) detected in comb and foundation beeswax from
honey bee colonies
Concentration (
μ
g kg
−1
)
95th
centile
b
Matrix
Mean
a
Median
b
Maximum
b
LOD
c
% of samples
Reference
Comb
beeswax
24.5
4.3
890.0
55.7
0.1
63.2
(163/258)
Mullin et al.
(
2010
)
14.9
-
19.0
-
-
3.5 (3/87)
Chauzat et al.
(
2011
)
172
-
-
-
6.0
5.6 (1/18)
Serra- Bonvehí
and Orantes-
Bermejo
(
2010
)
8
-
15
-
1.0
62 (8/13)
Wu et al. (
2011
)
ND
d
ND
ND
-
1.0
0 (0/31)
Cutler (
2013
)
Foundation
beeswax
22.2
10.0
110.0
76.4
0.1
80.9 (17/21)
Mullin et al.
(
2010
)
a
Based on positive detections
b
Based on calculations that included 0 μg kg for non-detections
c
Limit of detection
d
ND = CPY was included in residue analysis but was not detected
(Serra-Bonvehí and Orantes-Bermejo
2010
) (Table
5
). In 31 pooled samples of
beeswax (samples from hives from a single site were pooled) collected from the
Canadian provinces of Nova Scotia, Prince Edward Island, and New Brunswick,
CPY was not detected (Cutler
2013
).
In an assessment of effects on bees when exposed to pesticide-contaminated
wax, samples of brood comb were taken from hives that were suspected to have
died from Colony Collapse Disorder (Wu et al.
2011
). Residue analyses were per-
formed on brood comb samples. Of 13 frames of brood comb that contained large
concentrations of pesticides, CPY was detected in approximately two-thirds of
samples (Table
5
).
Concentrations of CPY in beeswax reported by Mullin et al. (
2010
) were similar
to those that were found in pollen and greater than those reported in bees or honey
(Johnson et al.
2010
; Mullin et al.
2010
). Since wax is produced and exuded by bees
in the hive, and concentrations are similar to those in pollen, it can be concluded that
the concentrations in wax enter the hive mainly on pollen or as the sublethal body
burden on forager bees. If wax is indeed a sink for CPY, the presence of CPY in
beeswax may not result in exposure (see discussion in Sect.
2.3
).
Exposures via soil
. Many bees live in or utilize soil for construction of nests. For
example, mason bees (
Osmia
spp.: Megachilidae) make compartments of mud in
their nests, while mining bees (Andrenidae), digger bees (Anthophorinae), and
sweat bees (Halictidae) are solitary underground nesters (Michener
2007
).
Pollinators that live in or use soil subject to application of pesticides can be exposed
to CPY after application of either sprayable or granular formulations (Fig.
1
).
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