Comparative Research Design - The Politics of Water Institutional Reform in Neopatrimonial States - page 57

to a dysfunction of parts of the large irrigation systems. This as well as a change in cropping
patterns contributed to a decrease in surface water withdrawal from 13.93 km³ annually in 1988
to 8 km³ in 2001, at least according to official statistics (MISI, FES 2003: 7; Djailoobaev 2004:
70).
In Tajikistan, 84% (719,000ha) of the arable area is irrigated land. About 90% of the agri
cultural output is produced thanks to irrigation. The overwhelming parts of the irrigated land
(83%) lie in the Sughd and Khatlon oblasts where cotton is grown. In Tajikistan, irrigation
agriculture was also affected by the general economic decline following the dissolution of the
Soviet Union and the subsequent civil war. About 20 to 30% of the area is not used due to
deteriorated infrastructure, inputs unaffordable for the farmers, and for other reasons. Agricul
tural production has declined by 50% since Tajikistan's independence. Water usage in Tajikis
tan decreased from 13.7 km³ in 1990 to 12.6 km³ in 2004, a representative of the IFAS Execu
tive Committee 39 mentioned that is has decreased to only 9 km³ (Bucknall et al 2003: 3f; UN
ECE 2004:137; UNDP 2003: 20, 23, 32; MIWM, UNDP, EC IFAS 2006: 18). 40
In contrast to Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan is heavily dependent on pumping irrigation due to its
geographic and topographic features: According to different sources, between 272,000 and
350,000 ha are solely served by pumpimg stations; this is almost half of the total irrigation land.
In total, more than 60% of the land plots depend on pumping irrigation at least in part (Kyr
gyzstan: 10%). There are 444 or 445 pumping stations with 1,833 or 1,845 pumps. Because of
the electricity costs for the pumping stations, irrigation is more expensive than in other Central
Asian countries (USAID 2002: 1; Bucknall et al. 2003: 27, UNDP 2003: 35f; Nazyrov, Pulatov
2003).
In both countries, water use for irrigation purposes is extremely high. Central Asia has the
lowest water use efficiency worldwide (UNDP 2006a: 8). According to World Bank data, in
Tajikistan water consumption for cotton cultivation is about 70% higher than in Pakistan
(UNDP 2003: 26). The reasons are, on the one hand, deteriorated infrastructure and outdated
irrigation techniques. Instead of directing the water through closed pipes, water evaporates in
open channels or trickles in earthen channels that are not lined. In addition to these technical
reasons, institutional factors also caused high water use: during Soviet times, water consump
tion did not have to be paid on a quantitative basis. Instead, only a small general fee was levied.
Thus there were no economic incentives to limit consumption. This behavior was aggravated
by the Soviet ideology of the human control over nature according to which nature is a mere
means for human development and may thus be fully exploited.
Another main mode of water use is hydropower generation. Due to the mountainous re
lief, the hydropower potential of the water resources is very high. After Russia, Tajikistan is the
second largest producer of hydropower in the CIS, with regard to per capita production it is
the biggest producer worldwide (UNDP 2003: 43). In both countries, hydropower covers an
essential part of the domestic energy needs. It is produced by hydropower plants located at
many of the reservoir dams. In Kyrgyzstan, there are 15 hydropower plants (HPP) that pro
duce a total of 2,948 MW. There are only two thermal power plants, one in Bishkek (588 MW)
and one in Osh (50 MW) that produce less than 10% of the power. The biggest reservoir is the
Toktogul reservoir with a storage capacity of 19.5 km³. It is part of the Naryn Syr Darya cas
cade a system of reservoirs and dams at the Naryn (Toktogul, Kurpsai, Tashkumyr, Shamal
39 The International Aral Sea Fund (IFAS) is the regional umbrella organization that regulates water distribution
between the states and coordinates all activities and programs concerning the Aral Sea Basin. The Executive
Committee consists of two members from every state. See Sehring 2002: 11-13.
40 Author's interview with a representative of the EC-IFAS, Dushanbe, 10/21/2003.