Female Foot Model for High-Heeled Shoe Design - Computational Biomechanics of the Musculoskeletal System - page 20

2.1 IntroduCtIon
There are many reasons ladies want to wear high heels. The primary reason for increasing the heel
height of the shoe is to add an extra degree of attractiveness. Whether women are standing or walk-
ing, wearing high-heeled shoes creates an optical illusion of a smaller foot, shapes the contour of
the ankle and leg, contributes to a long-legged look, thrusts the buttocks backwards, and increases
height to generate the sensation and appearance of power and status.
The anthropologists Smith and Helms (1999) comprehensively analyzed how high heels pro-
vided a good example of an evolved cultural display directed by sexual selection. Conforming to
culturally prescribed patterns of dress must have some positive fitness-enhancing aspects. A woman
wearing high heels sends a variety of messages that reveal her receptivity, sexuality, confidence,
and power.
2.1.1 a dVerSe and B eneficial e ffectS of H iGH -H eeled S HoeS
The Gallup organization reported that 59% of women wore high-heeled shoes for one to eight hours
per day (Gallup Organization Inc. 1986). Medical scientists have documented the adverse effects of
high-heeled shoes, which can be traced back over four centuries (Linder and Saltzman 1998).
Many researchers have reported that overworked or injured leg muscles, lower back pain, and
knee osteoarthritis (OA) may be linked to the abnormal posture that high heels induce (Kerrigan
et al. 2005). It is important to note that high heels do cause cumulative damage to the feet.
Common foot problems associated with high heels include corn, callus, hammer, mallet and claw
toes, hallux valgus, Morton's neuroma, metatarsalgia, pump bump, and tight heel cords. If women
frequently wear high-heeled shoes that are too narrow or too short for their feet, they could be
setting themselves up for one or more of these conditions. Based on a survey by the American
Orthopaedic Foot and Ankle Society on women's shoes in 1993, 88% wore shoes that were smaller
than their feet (average 12 mm), 80% had foot pain or deformity, and 76% had one or more forefoot
deformities.
Apart from the aforementioned foot problems, high-heeled shoes can also be used as an alterna-
tive therapeutic measure in the treatment of tendinitis and partial ruptures of the Achilles tendon
(Kogler et al. 2001). This conservative treatment strategy for plantar fasciitis can reduce the strain
in the plantar fascia (Gordon 1984; Cole, Seto, and Gazewood 2005; Marshall 1988).
2.1.1.1 review of Finite element analysis research on the Foot and Footwear
Due to the lack of technology and the invasive nature of experimental measurements, experimental
studies are often restricted to studying the plantar pressure distribution, and gross motion of the
foot, while the evaluation of internal joint movements and load distributions are usually unad-
dressed. As an alternative, researchers propose modeling approaches. Computer simulations, such
as the finite element (FE) method, are versatile tools and have the potential to provide detailed
biomechanical information. Such simulations are capable of modeling structures with irregular
geometry and complex material properties, and can accurately simulate complicated boundary and
loading conditions. In terms of footwear design, the FE method allows prediction of plantar pres-
sure and joint movement, as well as contact stress and internal stress/strain of the foot under various
loading and supporting conditions. These models can isolate the variable of interest, which is not
always possible using conventional experimental methods.
For human musculoskeletal joint modeling, the challenge remains to produce geometrically,
kinematically, and mechanically accurate models that can then be used in fundamental investiga-
tions, as well as injury simulation and prediction (Penrose et al. 2002). FE models may be useful for
deciding footwear design parameters such as material, heel height, and sole shape. The development
of comprehensive computational models of the human foot was suggested to be one of the most