Environmental Engineering Reference
In-Depth Information
commercial channels . . . FMC has no plans to reintroduce the product in these countries in the
future' (http://www.furadanfacts.com/InTheNews.aspx?itemId=1002).
Since then, Furadan has become more diffi cult to access in Kenya, as many agrovet proprietors
will inform customers (incorrectly) that Furadan has been 'banned'. As a result of the buy-back
programme, purchasing Furadan has now gone 'under the table', such that it is sold by the spoon-
ful to those who are 'in the know'. However, there is anecdotal evidence that carbofuran, whether
Furadan or otherwise, can still readily be sourced from nearby Tanzania (R. Bonnham, personal
communication, 2011) and Uganda.* Indeed, a recent survey indicated that carbofuran was readily
available in about 80% of the sampled agrovet stores in Uganda (Okot Omoya and Plumtre 2011).
In areas around Queen Elizabeth National Park, retailers openly stated that their customers used
carbofuran not only as pesticide but also as poison against 'problem animals' such as lions, monkeys
and baboons (E. Okot Omoya, personal communication, 2011). An incident of lion poisoning on
the Kenyan/Tanzanian border in the Amboseli region, allegedly implicating carbofuran, occurred as
recently as January 2011 (see Section 3.4).
Consequently, the current (as of 2011) and pressing ecological/economic concerns stem from
the possibility of regional extinctions of lions and vultures, discussed in more detail in Sections
3.4 and 3.5, respectively. The lion, a top predator and highly charismatic, emblematic species,
is a key element of Kenya's tourism sector, and vultures are an absolutely integral component
of any healthy ecosystem. There is now a genuine concern that the lion population in Kenya
may be extinguished within the next decade, if not before (Frank 2010). In combination with the
concerted efforts of stakeholders, the resulting adverse publicity and international perceptions
that followed the '60 Minutes' television segment have culminated in mounting pressure to ban
Furadan in Kenya. The 'sticking point' remains a dearth of robust and extensive forensic/toxi-
cological evidence specifically implicating carbofuran in comparison to the number of incidents
of wildlife mortality (see footnote * above). This situation is incredibly frustrating to those
on the ground who have good intelligence implicating the product. Fortunately, an increasing
amount of residue data is being collected, and concerted efforts are being directed towards
enhancing the necessary sampling and analytical capability (see Section 3.7). For example, the
first forensic analysis of carbofuran exposure to vultures in Kenya through improper use (in
poisoned baits) has recently been established in Isiolo and Laikipia Districts, using high preci-
sion analytical instruments (Otieno 2009; Otieno et al. 2010b). This case is further detailed in
Section 3.6.
In order to understand how things in Kenya (and other parts of Africa) reached this point, it is
fi rst necessary to have a sense of the agricultural and rural way of life in the country. This chapter
therefore begins with a discussion of how carbofuran (in this case Furadan) was introduced into
Kenya and previous use patterns (Section 3.2). Trends in the use and handling of pesticides (includ-
ing carbofuran) in agricultural communities and a brief discussion of the presence, persistence and
degradation of the compound in the Kenyan environment are also included.
Case studies detailing a variety of incidences of wildlife mortality have been provided by key
researchers on the ground, and refl ect the full range of threats posed to wildlife and biodiversity
in Kenya. A map of Africa (see Figure 3.1) has been provided to facilitate the reader's jour-
ney through the case studies. The chapter concludes with a review of the remarkable array of
governmental and regulatory mechanisms that have been enacted to address unsafe and ille-
gal uses of pesticides, thereby illustrating in large part why the process to get a fi rm handle
on the incidents of wildlife poisonings and illegal uses of pesticides has been anything but
straightforward.
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