Environmental Engineering Reference
In-Depth Information
picture of real trends and patterns will emerge. Pragmatically, the level of analytical capacity avail-
able worldwide differs markedly, as described in this topic. Excellent analytical infrastructure and
innovative detection/preventive measures are often in place in certain areas (e.g., the UK, some parts
of Europe and the United States/Canada). Unfortunately, in other areas (e.g., Kenya), the evidence
that is being collected is largely anecdotal, and, until monitoring systems are implemented to col-
lect evidence that is forensically robust, it will be diffi cult to mount strong legal cases. In the fairly
extreme example of Kenya, it must further be noted that, while equipment is available and qualifi ed
staff are willing and able to use it, there is a dearth of accredited, 'independent' testing facilities (i.e.,
not linked to the government or the agricultural industry in some way). Unfortunately, ethical issues
have arisen, which has led to mistrust regarding the accuracy of results and, in some cases, outright
refusals by laboratories to test samples following intense lobby and pressure by agricultural and
government interests.
The international community has an important role to play in levelling the analytical playing
fi eld and smoothing out some of the ethical concerns. For example, a number of charitable/nonprofi t
organisations now donate new or refurbished analytical instruments to developing countries and
offer long-term technical expertise. Collaborations between analysts, researchers and conservation-
ists can also be pursued. Projects can be initiated, common funding secured, and expertise exchanged
(particularly regarding the latest developments in analytical techniques). International 'watchdog'
groups could be appointed to conduct independent analysis or offer independent accreditation to
local entities. While certain fundamental procedures must be followed to maintain the chemical
and forensic integrity of samples, protocols must also take into account real logistical constraints
(e.g., of distance, extreme environmental conditions, intermittent power supply and existing ana-
lytical capacity). Internationally-recognised and approved protocols, outlining collection standards,
storage standards, and sample testing should be developed and adapted to fi t the needs and realities
of each country. Protocols that involve simple/user-friendly and cost-effective sample collection and
analyses are most likely to be adopted.
9.2.4 Conduct studies in critical but currently under-represented fi elds
The contributions offered in this topic refl ect the extent to which the issue of carbofuran use and
wildlife poisoning, in its many facets, has been studied. A diffi culty has been that, up to now, such
studies have not been consolidated to enable key gaps in knowledge. In this regard, several important
but under-represented topics have emerged in this topic, particularly concerning risk assessment in
humans.
Chapter 3 highlighted a practice where carbofuran is used in a way in which it was never intended,
i.e., to poison birds and fi sh that are destined for human consumption. The health risks posed to
individuals (e.g., hunters/poachers and consumers) who knowingly and willingly eat poisoned meat
must be addressed. This will require an assessment of residues in poisoned meat that compares the
impact, if any, of regional and traditional means of food preparation (e.g., hanging and roasting wild
birds prior to consumption). In terms of agricultural use, many farmers worldwide do not wear pro-
tective clothing, either because they cannot afford to purchase it, they are unaware of its necessity
or, in tropical climates, because they fi nd it too uncomfortable. Further research is also required to
assess exposure levels sustained during such occupational use.
Likewise, there do not seem to have been any studies which compare or at least consider
crop application volumes to end residues in foodstuffs. As mentioned in Section 9.2.2, there is
an entrenched mindset within the farming industry that pesticide application is indispensable for
crop integrity and food security. A number of alternative agricultural initiatives have been trialled
to lessen our dependency on highly toxic and broad spectrum pesticides, including carbofuran
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