Environmental Engineering Reference
In-Depth Information
practices are very important locally, in remote mountainous areas, where sheep are primarily grazed.
In Andalucía, farming and hunting-related poisonings account for 25 and for 60 to 70% of the cases
recorded, respectively (Ruiz, Ortega, Valero et al. 2010). The remaining percentage is attributed
mostly to incidents of personal revenge (e.g., following disputes between neighbours). Indeed, in
the Mediterranean it is not at all uncommon to use poison to solve personal problems either directly
(against people) or, more frequently, to poison an individual's livestock and/or domestic animals.
Table 5.5 summarises the types of poisons used in Andalucía (from 2008 data), which can also be
considered to represent the situation across Spain. Use of carbamates (e.g., aldicarb, carbofuran and
methomyl) and organophosphorus compounds (e.g., methamidophos) predominated overall (Ruiz,
Ortega, Valero et al. 2010). The increase in the use of these compounds can in part be linked to a
decrease in the availability of strychnine, which was banned in 1998 in the EU (according to Biocidal
Products Directive 98/8/EC). Although most of the compounds used are illegal under EU regulations,
stockpiles remain and a black market also exists. It should be noted that some of the organochlorine
residues that are detected originate from past use and environmental contamination rather than active
use of a compound as a bait/poison. In such cases, the distinction can be made by comparing residues
(and concentration levels) detected from the carcass with those in the bait used to poison the animal.
The dramatic increase in the use of poison baits led to the virtual extirpation of certain species
(i.e., Egyptian vulture and red kite) from large areas in the late 1990s, while the population and
range of others were seriously compromised. The Spanish imperial eagle (
Aquila adalberti
), black
or cinereus vulture (
Aegypius monachus
), red kite (
Milvus milvus
), Egyptian vulture (
Neophron per-
cnopterus
), griffon vulture (
Gyps fulvus
)
and wolf (
Canis lupus
) are among the species that were
affected. More information about such threats to Spanish vulture and eagle populations can be found
in Gonzáles, Margalida, Maños et al. 2007, Hernández and Margalida 2008, Margalida, Heredia,
Razin et al. 2008 and Hernández and Margalida 2009, among others. In response, the national and
regional governments devised strategies and policies in 2000, to prosecute poisoning offenders
and to stop/reduce incidence of poisoning. In this same spirit, the Government of Andalucía launched
a special programme simultaneously, to address this problem from all sides. From a legal perspec-
tive, more restrictive regulations were introduced, and a concerted effort has been made to prosecute
offenders. The penalties are compelling, for example fi nes can reach up to 200 000 euro, and there is
also the very real possibility of spending time in prison. Presentations and strategically placed signs/
panels, and media outreach to disseminate information in the press and on television are just some
of the educational measures being enacted (Ruiz, Valero, Sáez et al. 2010). Alternative 'control'
methods are also being promoted. For example, the use of snares and traps/cage traps will soon be
legalised (but under restrictive conditions) as a substitute means of reducing predator populations.
There is also an increased effort to detect baits, specialised detection teams are being trained, and
advanced forensic methodologies, investigative and police methods are being developed, among
many other initiatives. To date, incidents of poisoning have been reduced by 40% and the more
Table 5.5
Summary of poisons used against wildlife in Andalucía (2008)
Class of compound used
Percentage detected (%)
Carbamate
76
Organophosphorus
12
Rodenticide
5
Organochlorine
4
Pyrethroids/pyrethrin
2
Phenols
1
Taken from Ruiz, Ortega, Valero et al. (2010)
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