Agriculture Reference
In-Depth Information
human health trends (e.g., omega-3 FA and CLA), the impact on other fats
and their potential for human health benefi ts have received less attention.
Concentrate-fi nishing enhances oleic acid concentration in beef [77,86],
and diets high in mono-unsaturated fatty acids (MUFA), specifi cally oleic
acid, can lower the concentrations of undesirable low-density-lipoprotein
cholesterol (LDL) humans [87]; low-density-lipoprotein cholesterol rep-
resents a signifi cant risk factor for cardiovascular disease and are consid-
ered the bad cholesterol [88]. More research is needed on the direct human
health effects of consuming beef products considered enriched with ome-
ga-3 FA and CLAs (forage fed) or with oleic acid (concentrate-fi nished).
Consumers are willing to pay a premium for animal products from
organic systems because they should not contain residues of the synthetic
chemicals (pesticides, herbicides, fertilizers, fungicides and veterinary
drugs) that are used in non-organic ruminant production systems [89].
However, the nutritional benefi ts from organic milk and meat products in
the form of healthier fat composition and increased antioxidant and vita-
min properties are due to dietary factors that are used in but not exclusive
to organic systems, specifi cally greater pasture consumption of organic
dairy and beef cattle compared to those in non-organic systems. How-
ever, grazing-based dairy and beef systems (including certifi ed organic
systems) do not have exclusive claims to these greater levels of potentially
benefi cial components in meat and milk products. It is possible to increase
benefi cial fatty acids and other nutritional components of meat and milk
in confi nement feeding through the use of supplemental feeds such as oil-
seeds [90,91] or fi sh oil [92].
4.5 GREENHOUSE GAS IMPLICATIONS OF ORGANIC AND
NON-ORGANIC PRODUCTION
4.5.1 GREENHOUSE GAS EMISSIONS IN DAIRY SYSTEMS
Greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from organic dairy systems have been
found to be lower on a per-ha area than emissions from non-organic dairy
systems across a range of environments in western Europe, based on
whole-farm assessments using the FarmGHG model [93]. Life cycle
