Agriculture Reference
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that in spite of the influence of Western civilization, many Africans seek recourse to spiritual diag-
nosis for any serious or chronic illness, irrespective of the social status held or the religion professed
by the individual. The priests, diviners, medicine men, and herbalists are thus an integral part of the
cultural history of the African.
There are essentially two forms of divination: first, the minor visit to a seer to establish the causes
of certain misfortunes, to discover the incarnate spirit of a newborn, or to adjudicate between dispu-
tants; and second, the more serious recourse to a powerful oracle or juju shrine for a definitive solu-
tion to unanswered questions of a momentous nature in the society. In the latter situation the direct
manifestation of the wrath of the deity is expected within a few days and at most within a year. Thus,
to survive the full year after such a visit usually calls for celebrations and jubilation. The punish-
ment for the guilt varies according to the oracle consulted; for the Igbo deity Amadioha, for example,
death is the outcome, and the deity usually leaves a black mark on the victim's forehead. Thunder
and lightning or a swarm of bees heralds such deaths. The property of the deceased is claimed by the
high priests and members of the Amadioha cult. The wrath of Amadioha, the god that symbolizes
the collective will of the society, is so strong that it can be appeased only by transferring the curse
to a sacrificial live goat, which is then let loose outside the community gates. Is this not similar to
the instructions in the Old Testament recorded in Leviticus 16, “And the Lord said to Moses—Aaron
shall lay both his hands upon the head of the live goat, and confess over him all the iniquities of the
children of Israel, and all their transgressions, even all their sins; and he shall put them upon the head
of the goat, and shall send him away by the hand of an appointed man into the wilderness”?
The ritual cleansing required for Amadioha is very tasking and costly. Igwe-ka-ala prefers to
disgrace his victims quietly until they are forced to confess. Some diseases are, of course, believed
to be caused by the direct act of witchcraft, magic, amulets, or charms. And, some are caused by
contravening some norms. In such cases, the patient is tormented both by his or her physical illness
and the guilt of his or her wrongdoing. “Magun,” among the Yorubas, is a death-inviting preparation
that selectively kills only those who covet the property and wives of others.
If somebody is a victim of “somersault Magun,” for example, he becomes frightened of heights
and may die from his own fears and beliefs rather than by the effect of the charm. A cure for or
prevention of the many types of Magun should of course be of a dual nature: the physical or organic
treatment with herbs and the psychic purging of guilt, followed by autosuggestion on how to resist
the temptation of coveting another man's wife. It is usually more expedient to blame the Magun on
some evil-minded enemy rather than to accept the guilt and make amends.
The practice of medicine by African healers not only is directed toward the restoration of health
by the application of drugs but also is aimed at the control of unseen powers of all kinds. Disease is
only an external manifestation of inner disequilibrium or physical discord, a sign of a lost battle in
the delicate balancing act of appeasing the benevolent spirits and neighbors and keeping malevolent
spirits and enemies in good check. In a traditional setting, morality is of nonsupernatural origin.
Thus, what is morally good is that which brings happiness (note, not pleasure), decency, dignity,
respect, and contentment, and what is morally bad can bring only misery, misfortune, and disgrace.
Doing good is not necessarily to please God, but God and the lesser gods are pleased with a morally
acceptable act because it is good, and they condemn bad acts because they are bad per se. In other
words, in sharp contrast with the Western and Christian belief, humans are created pure and good
and can corrupt themselves only by their style of living; they are not created with a sinful soul so
that they have to be saved from a previously earned punishment—or original sin inherited from
mythical first ancestors, Adam and Eve.
There are, of course, scores of diseases that have no spiritual causes: Insect bites, venereal dis-
eases, yaws, colic, jiggers, malaria, and arthritis are not ascribed to supernatural forces because of
familiarity and ease of observing cause and treatment. The essential point here is that there is a need
to resist the strong urge to separate African ethnomedicine into classical medicine and religion.
There is a bit of the supernatural in every mode of life; the gods, the spirits, and the ancestors form
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