Agriculture Reference
In-Depth Information
The botanical designation of
B. carterii
as a synonym of
B. sacra
has been challenged based on
the detailed chemical profile of both varieties.
49
A transnational team of investigators led by Cole
Woolley has evaluated the Somalian
(B. carterii
) and Omani/Yemeni (
B. sacra
) species by chemi-
cal analyses to determine if there were any minor or major differences between the two species of
frankincense. Components identified with their average percentage for
B. sacra
were α-thujene (0.6%),
α-pinene (68.2%), camphene (2.1%), sabinene (2.9%), β-pinene (2.0%), myrcene (0.7%), and limonene
plus β-phellandrene (6.2%). Components identified with their average percentage for
B. carterii
were
α-thujene (7.9%), α-pinene (37.3%), camphene (0.8%), sabinene (4.9%), β-pinene (1.8%), myrcene
(7.3%), and limonene plus β-phellandrene (14.4%). Initially, GC/MS analysis did not reveal major statis-
tical differences. However, optical rotation values for
B. sacra
(+30.1°) and
B. carterii
(−13.3°) demon-
strated a greater significant difference. Enantiomeric ratio (+)/(−) values of α-pinene for
B. sacra
and
B.
carterii
of 8.24 and 0.68, respectively, were also calculated, aiding the investigators to conclude that
B.
sacra
and
B. carterii
are not synonymous but rather two distinct and individual frankincense species.
302
Pharmacological Studies —
The volatile oils from several species of
Boswellia
have been evalu-
ated for their antimicrobial activity. The antimicrobial activity (MIC assay) of the oils ranged from 4-16
mg/ml (
Staphylococcus aureus
), to 1.5-8.3 mg/ml (
Bacillus cereus
), to 4.0-12.0 mg/ml (
Escherichia
coli
), to 2.0-12.8 mg/ml (
Proteus
vulgaris
), to 5.3-12.0 mg/ml (
Candida
albicans
).
303
The gum exudate
of some
Boswellia
species contains four major triterpenic acids known as BAs, that is, β-boswellic
acid (BA), 3-O-α-acetyl-β-boswellic acid (ABA), 11-keto-β-boswellic acid (KBA), and 3-O-α-acetyl-
11-keto-β-boswellic acid (AKBA). The BA acylates, including their epimers, were synthesized and
screened against a panel of human cancer cell lines. They exhibited a range of cytotoxicity against
various human cancer cell lines, thereby leading to the development of a possible structure-activity
relationship (SAR). One of the identified lead compounds was found to be an inhibitor of the NF-jB and
STAT proteins, and it is currently being investigated for development as an anticancer agent.
304
The anti-inflammatory activity of BAs has been shown to be probably due to direct inhibition of
lipopolysaccharide (LPS) functionality and LPS-induced cellular responses. In pull-down experi-
ments, LPS could be precipitated using an immobilized BA, implying direct molecular interactions.
Binding of BAs to LPS leads to an inhibition of LPS activity, which was observed
in vitro
using
a modified limulus amoebocyte lysate assay. Analysis of different BAs revealed clear structure-
activity relationships, with the classical β-BA the most potent derivative (IC
50
= 1.8 µM).
305
Boswellia
has been used clinically for the management of ulcerative colitis; however, the second
European evidence-based consensus on the diagnosis and management of ulcerative colitis found
the clinical evidence insufficient to approve the use of
Boswellia sacra
extract (BSE) and BAs in
the treatment of this serious disease.
306
It has also been used for the treatment of asthma, depression,
and osteoarthritis (OA).
Commerce —
Frankincense occurs in various forms in commerce. The crude olibalum is sold
in markets in Somalia, Djibuti, Yemen, and neigboring countries in the Horn of Africa and Middle
East. The essential oils are exported for the perfumery industry and for use in aromatherapy. The
product from Sudan is mostly
Boswellia papyrifera,
and the Indian frankincense is
Boswellia ser-
rata.
The edible frankincense, which is translucent, often light yellow with a slight greenish tint,
and with no black or brown impurities, is consumed in most parts of the Horn of Africa. It is often
chewed like gum, but it is stickier because it is a resin. It is the frankincense produced along the
northern coast of Somalia from which the Roman Catholic Church draws its supplies.
Agriculture —
The propagation of
Boswellia sacra
trees is difficult, although the plant can
adapt to extremely harsh environments. Their ability to grow in environments so unforgiving is
considered unusual; they sometimes grow directly out of solid rock. The trees start producing resin
when they are about 8 to 10 years old. Tapping is done two to three times a year, with the final taps
producing the best tears due to their higher aromatic terpene, sesquiterpene, and diterpene content.
In commerce, the more opaque resins are considered to be the best quality. According to recent
surveys, frankincense tree populations are declining, partly due to overexploitation. Heavily tapped
