Agriculture Reference
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Cardina, Johnson & Sparrow, 1997) and on principles of farmer learning and
decision-making. Other terminology that refers to similar procedures
includes farmer participatory research (Okali, Sumberg & Farrington, 1994),
participatory technology development (Haverkort, van der Kamp & Waters-
Bayer, 1991), indigenous knowledge and technology development
(Brokensha,Warren & Werner, 1980), participatory research and development
(Chambers, 1995), and participatory action research (Whyte, 1991). This or
related processes are being used in farmer networks in USA, Europe,
Australia, Africa, Asia, and Latin America (Scoones & Thompson, 1994;
Thrupp, 1996; Veldhuizen et al ., 1997).
Why the term participatory learning for action? First, the focus is on all the
actions in weed management by farmers. Actions include not just the field
practices employed, but information acquisition and use by farmers and their
planning and decision-making processes. Second, learning (rather than
research) suggests a broad approach to inquiry based on experiments, field
observation,group analysis of data from monitoring routine practice,and any
other tools that improve weed management.Third, the process should be par -
ticipatory . That is, farmers, extensionists, and scientists should all contribute
to and learn from the process.
Participatory learning for ecological weed management: a
proposal
The development of ecological weed management depends on the
collective ability of farmers, extensionists, and scientists to convert local weed
information into an improved understanding of weed ecology. Special atten-
tion must be taken to develop principles of weed ecology that are applicable in
improved farmer planning and decision-making. The following proposal
offers a starting point for a “learning to learn” process on farmers' manage-
ment of weed patchiness and uncertainty. The process should be open-ended
and evolving. Initial learning and experiences among farmers, extensionists,
and scientists become the basis for planning future steps.Four themes are dis-
cussed here: the role of groups in participatory learning, farmers' decision-
making as an organizing principle,methods for observing and understanding
weeds, and farmer communication with other farmers.
Why participatory learning involves farmer groups
The process for developing agricultural technology and information
follows a series of steps. Problems and opportunities are identified either
through formal analysis or by intuition. Next, those participating in technol-
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