Spatial Cues in 3D Visualization - Ambient Intelligence for Scientific Discovery - page 109

Gender. Researchers have long acknowledged the relevance of gender as im-
pacting human computer interaction. Gender has been regarded as an important
factor affecting: computer skills and computer design issues [34]; the design of
user interfaces [35]; and the achievement of the 'universal usability' of internet-
based and other computer services [36]. It has been demonstrated that men and
women report different perceptions and preferences with respect to the use and
satisfaction of electronic commerce web site features [38].
Furthermore, gender differences in both innate (e.g. cognitive test scores)
and applied (e.g. external task-oriented) cognitive abilities have been actively
studied for decades. Although cognitive task performances of men and women
have been shown to overlap considerably [38], and although some studies report
that women outperform men in many aspects of verbal ability [39, 40], many
studies report that men outperform women in certain spatial tasks [40-44].
Differences between the genders performing spatial tasks are generally at-
tributed to innate gender differences in cognitive spatial abilities. Prominent
meta-analytic studies [45, 46] have indicated higher male scores on certain cogni-
tive spatial tests, but individual studies report inconsistent results in this regard.
Assessing differences between the genders in spatial abilities is also complicated
by the fact that the different studies often use different test instruments to
measure so-called 'spatial ability.' To clarify this issue, Linn and Petersen [45]
categorized the cognitive test instruments used in the literature into three dis-
tinct groups, including those that measure: (1) spatial perception ;(2) mental
rotation ;and(3) spatial visualization . 'Spatial perception' is described as “the
ability to determine spatial relations despite distracting information.” 'Mental
rotation' is the ability to quickly and accurately imagine the rotation of two- and
three-dimensional figures. 'Spatial visualization' refers to “the ability to manip-
ulate complex spatial information when several stages are needed to produce the
correct solution.” Using these categories, meta-analyses [45, 46] have concluded
that men score higher than women on spatial perception and mental rotation
tests, but that there are no aggregate gender differences on spatial visualization
cognitive test scores.
One theory that offers an evolutionary perspective on contemporary gender
differences in innate spatial abilities is the hunter-gatherer theory of the ori-
gin of gender-specific spatial attributes [47]. This theory suggests that ancient
differentiated sex roles from prehistoric times are responsible for modern-day
men and women having different cognitive skill predispositions. According to
this theory, prehistoric women, or 'gatherers,' who were effective at foraging
for food, and who were successful at keeping track of relationships, activities,
objects, locations, and landmarks near their habitats, were also successful at ac-
quiring resources for bearing and raising offspring. Moreover, prehistoric males,
or 'hunters,' who were better at traveling through unfamiliar territory, estimat-
ing distance, and generally at navigating with a 'bird's eye view' orientation
were, as a consequence, more successful at hunting, competing with other males,
finding mates, and, consequently, at fathering children.