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mitochondria
NAD(P)H oxidases
xanthine oxidase
SOD
O
2
•-
O
2
H
2
O
2
hypoxanthine xanthine
xanthine uric acid
Fenton reaction
DNA
damage
•
OH
LH
L
•
O
2
LOO
•
LO
•
lipid peroxidation process
H
C
5
H
11
R
cyclization
•
OO
H
O
•
cyclization
O O
H
2
O
O
O
O
OH
cyclization
O
2
/RH
CH
H
H
4-hydroxynonenal
H
H
O
HO
malondialdehyde
β-hydroxyacrolein
guanine
adenine
cytosine
O
O
-2H
2
O
O
H
H
H
H
N
N
N
H
H
H
N
H
N
N
N
deoxyR
N
N
M
1
G
N
N
N
N
O
deoxyR
M
1
A
M
1
C
deoxyR
Figure 1.3.
ROS formation and the lipid peroxidation process (adapted from Jomova
and Valko [35] with the permission of the Elsevier Inc.). See color insert.
neuropathy, and tumors [68]. Evidence of both ROS and RNS involvement
has been detected in the metabolism of arsenic [60, 69, 70].
In recent years, the use of metal nanoparticles in various applications has
increased greatly and further studies are in progress to evaluate their toxicity
[71, 72]. For example, silver nanoparticles and Ag
+
ions have been shown to
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