Environmental Engineering Reference
In-Depth Information
Table 1. Three tiers of environmental standardization
Tier / Attribute
Traditional
Standardization
Classification
Typical
Standardization Body
Object of Standardization
Permissible
Variance Range for
Compliance
Top Tier:
Emissions Controls
De jure
Int'l Treaty, National
Laws; Environmental
Regulations
Pollutants, Products
Rules-Based/
Narrow Range Ex-
plicitly Specified
Middle Tier
:
Environmental Tech-
nologies & Markets
De Facto,
De Jure,
Voluntary Consensus
Standards Body (VCSB)
Proprietary Standard;
Various Regulators;
VCSB, Non-Govern-
mental Organizations
Abatement & Test Equip-
ment: Industrial & Product
Components; Trading Rights;
Trading Market Mechanisms;
Disclosure Methods
Principles-Based/
Medium Range
Assessed by Profes-
sionals
Base Tier:
Conformity As-
sessment, Testing
Methods, Metrology,
Certification, Accredi-
tation & Monitoring
Voluntary Consen-
sus Standards Body
(VCSB), de jure, de
facto
VCSB
Test Methods, Data, Profes-
sionalism, Third Party Exper-
tise/Experience
Rules-Based/
Narrow Range Ex-
plicitly Specified
(Principles-Only/
Flexible Range for
Professionals)
be effective. By contrast, performance standards
describe a product's function irrespective of the
particular design used, such as limiting particular
emissions of hydro-carbons, carbon monoxide,
oxides of nitrogen, or particulates. Thus, design
standards presume the overall design provides ad-
equate performance when using well-understood
arrangements of familiar materials and compo-
nents (means). Contrast this with performance
standards because they are more flexible, per-
mitting various designs so long as they achieve
acceptable results (ends) even if alternative or
novel designs are deployed. Thus, means-based
standards presume adequacy of particular speci-
fied designs. By contrast, an ends-based stan-
dard sets performance adequacy and determines
compliance later, during conformity assessment.
Performance standards are results-oriented but
may not achieve network effects where these are
possible through specified designs. Consider how
the catalytic converter design standard triggered
scale economies and cost reductions after they
were mass produced and this required the elimi-
nation of lead-based, highway motor gasoline to
protect the design from sudden destruction. Design
standards enshrine particular designs by raising
switching costs and make alternative innovations
more difficult to pursue.
Three Tiers of Environmental
Standardization
There are three, somewhat overlapping layers or
tiers of standardization that appear to dominate
the scope of environmental standards development
activities (SDA). This three tier analysis is use-
ful to direct SDA resources by the public, policy
makers, industry participants and members of the
environmental conformity assessment communi-
ties. Consult Table 1 for visual guidance.
In the top tier are largely de jure pollution
control standards usually promulgated by statu-
tory law or agency regulations. Alternatively, these
de jure standards have occasionally emerged from
court decisions, although this occurs largely in
common law nations. In the future, it can be ex-
pected that contractual requirements and some
industry self-regulation standards may also impose
pollution controls. In recent years, environmental
laws have also been compelled by regional (e.g.,
EU, NAFTA) and international trade or environ-
mental control treaties (e.g., Kyoto Protocol).
Pollution or emissions control standards are ex-
