HISTORICAL CONTEXT OF AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT - Science for Agriculture and Rural Development in Low-income Countries - page 20

increase agricultural production costs. Failing control has led to increased use of
pesticides, while yields have declined. The economic costs and externalities
associated with the impact of pesticide use on health and the environment have
drawn greater attention.
An increased knowledge base - A growing body of scientific knowledge has
contributed to more detailed understanding of ecosystems and of the interactions of
the different elements within them. Understanding has also increased how certain
pesticide-based practices threaten the sustainability of ecosystems. IPM and IVM
have evolved based on increasing scientific evidence.
Public opinion - Increasing concern over effects of pesticides on health and the
environment has led to public pressure to reduce their excessive use. For example,
groundwater contamination and poisoned wells are a matter of grave concern in
countries with intensive agriculture, and in some countries concern over pesticide
residues in food is already changing consumption patterns.
IPM at field level
Farmers manage often complex agro-ecosystems. IPM is holistic in its approach,
which builds on knowledge about the different elements in the system (soil, water,
nutrients, plants, pests, natural enemies, diseases, weeds, weather) and their inter-
actions, to arrive at sound management decisions. As the decision makers, farmers,
are central to this process and should have the opportunity to improve their knowledge
through suitable adult education methods. Farmer Field Schools (FFSs) provide such
an opportunity (Braun et al. 2002; Feder et al. 2003). Their programmes aim at
strengthening farmers' knowledge and understanding of the agro-ecosystems they
manage. They also aim to develop farmers' skills to observe and analyse agro-
ecosystems, to come to informed management decisions. FFSs use non-formal adult
education approaches, farmers learn by taking part in solution-seeking in a problem-
based setting. Education is field-based, study fields are part of any FFS. FFSs are
season-long and follow the development of a crop from seeding through harvest.
Participatory approaches
In both, FSR and IPM it was increasingly recognized that farmers, as the final
decision makers on land use and, therefore, on agricultural production need to play
an active role in agricultural development. In the 1980s, therefore, participatory
approaches in agricultural development research and extension became a focus of
attention. The emergence of participation as an issue to be addressed within extension
approaches was slower in coming to the forefront, as compared to the attention
participation received within research systems. One key element of participation is
an emphasis on developing the capacity of local people as an end in itself , as
opposed to the purely mechanistic emphasis of participation as a means within the
technology development flow that has often characterized research and extension