Agriculture Reference
In-Depth Information
chemical inputs, so that the Green Revolution technologies created a need for
chemical inputs.
Another component of the Green Revolution was the establishment of large-scale
irrigation systems through construction of big dams and often flooding of previously
settled areas and fertile farmland. The efficiency of large irrigation networks was
and still is the subject of controversies.
The Green Revolution introduced also new machines for land preparation and a
set of harvest and post-harvest technologies. Of all implements, the so-called power
tiller had the most far-reaching effect on the soil. Puddling of the paddy soil with
this machine destroys much of the natural soil structure and mixes the soil particles
thoroughly.
The use of HYVs and chemical inputs soon became the dominant practice among
farmers, and growing crops for subsistence gave way to the production of cash
crops.
Age of uncertainty (1975-1985)
Developed countries
In this period, farmers increasingly protested against the forces of globalization and
the reform of international trade under the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade.
The GATT was signed in 1948 with the aim to provide a forum for negotiation of
tariff reduction, and the elimination of non-tariff barriers such as quota and
embargoes. Important aspects of the GATT in this context included: (i) tariffs were
permitted, but their rates were bound and could only be increased under explicitly
specified waiver provisions; (ii) practices of dumping and subsidizing exports were
prohibited and a process for determining anti-dumping and/or countervailing duties
was explicitly formulated; (iii) quantitative restrictions such as quota and licenses
were prohibited. In practice, GATT was relatively ineffective with respect to
international trade in agricultural products, because of wide-spread exemptions for
agriculture, the substantial waivers that were granted, breaches of rules that were
accepted, and the ineffective ways of dealing with important questions such as
subsidies and state trading (Harris 1982).
Developing countries
After more than a decade, in spite of the all-out support by governments and
international institutions, the seeming success of the Green Revolution began to
loose some of its brilliance (Conway and Barbier 1990). First, social concerns took
the centre stage of the critique. Successful performance of HYVs required use of
substantial quantities of chemical inputs. As many of the small farmers could not
afford these, they had to borrow money. To some extent, government programmes
provided loans to farmers so that they could avail of the package of seeds, fertilizers
and biocides. Farmers that could not participate in this kind of programmes had to
borrow from the private sector. Because of the exorbitant interest rates for informal
loans, many small farmers did not even reap the benefits of higher yields. After
harvest, they had to sell an increasing share of their produce to pay loans and
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