Introduction and principles - Introduction to Environmental Impact Assessment - page 15

the UK in relation to major transport projects in the 1960s, but is enjoying a new lease of
life (see Hanley & Splash 1993, Lichfield 1996). Environmental auditing is the
systematic, periodic and documented evaluation of the environmental performance of
facility operations and practices, and this area has seen the development of procedures,
such as the International Standard 14001 (ISO 14001). But in general, these other tools
have been much less internalized into decision-making procedures and legislation than
EIA, and now SEA. They also tend to be more technocentric, and with less attention paid
to process and the wider stakeholder environment. However, they can be seen as
complementary tools to EIA. Thus Chapter 5 explores the potential role of CBA
approaches in EIA evaluation, and in Chapter 11 the role of environmental auditing is
explored further, in relation to environmental management systems (EMSs).
This brief discussion on perspectives, theoretical context, associated tools and
processes emphasizes the need to continually re-assess the role and operation of EIA and
the importance of an adaptive EIA.
1.5 Projects, environment and impacts
1.5.1 The nature of major projects
As noted in Section 1.2, EIA is relevant to a broad spectrum of development actions,
including policies, plans, programmes and projects. The focus here is on projects,
reflecting the dominant role of project EIA in practice. The SEA of the “upper tiers” of
development actions is considered further in Chapter 12. The scope of projects covered
by EIA is widening, and is discussed further in Chapter 4. Traditionally, project EIA has
applied to major projects; but what are major projects, and what criteria can be used to
identify them? One could take Lord Morley's approach to defining an elephant: it is
difficult, but you easily recognize one when you see it. In a similar vein, the acronym
LULU (locally unacceptable land uses) has been applied in the USA to many major
projects, such as in energy, transport and manufacturing, clearly reflecting the public
perception of the negative impacts associated with such developments. There is no easy
definition, but it is possible to highlight some important characteristics (Table 1.2).
Most large projects involve considerable investment. In the UK context, “mega-
projects” such as the Sizewell B PWR nuclear power station (budgeted to cost about £2
billion), the Channel Tunnel (about £6 billion) and the proposed Severn Barrage (about
£8 billion) constitute one end of the spectrum. At the other end may be industrial estate
developments, small stretches of road, various waste-disposal facilities, with considerably
smaller, but still substantial, price tags. Such projects often cover large areas and employ
many workers, usually in construction, but also in operation for some projects. They also
invariably generate a complex array of inter- and intra-organizational activity during the
various stages of their lives. The developments may have wide-ranging, long-term and
often very significant impacts on the environment. The definition of significance with
regard to environmental effects is an important issue in EIA. It may relate, inter alia, to
scale of development, to sensitivity of location and to the nature of adverse effects; it will
be discussed further in later chapters. Like a large stone thrown into a pond, a major
project can create major ripples with impacts spreading far and wide. In many respects