Biology Reference
In-Depth Information
Population geneticists study how genetic principles apply to entire popula-
tions (
Hartl 1981, Real 1994, Hartl and Clark 1997, Rowntree et al. 2011
). One of
the most striking features of insect populations is their phenotypic diversity. An
underlying assumption that population geneticists make is that this phenotypic
diversity is matched by genetic diversity and they attempt to deal with the phe-
notypic and genotypic differences among individuals.
Population genetics and population ecology have been distinct disci-
plines, but they have become less distinct recently (
Slatkin 1987, Kellenberger
1994, Mitton 1994, Real 1994, Hoffman et al. 1995
,
Loxdale and Luschai 1998,
Sunnucks 2000, Black et al. 2001
). The molecular analysis of genes and genetic
systems may provide insights for both autecological and synecological studies
because an insect's heredity determines its behavior and ability to survive in spe-
cific environments and communities. Changes in genes and gene frequencies in
populations over evolutionary time are important for understanding both spe-
ciation and community structure (Hoffman et al. 1995,
Behura 2006
).
The application of molecular-genetic techniques to the study of insect popula-
tion ecology will play an ever more significant role as insect ecologists explore
the power, and limitations, of these new tools (
Sunnucks 2000, Tittiger 2004,
Behura 2006, Stinchcombe and Hoekstra 2008, Gilad et al. 2009, Nadeau and
Jiggins 2010
). Analyses could provide better understanding of biodiversity,
biosafety issues, biotype ecology and evolution, colonization processes, con-
servation biology, diet analysis, dispersal, gene flow, geographical distribution,
host-parasite interactions, hybridization or introgression, insect-plant inter-
actions, kinship, paternity, pesticide resistance, population structure, species
identity, sperm precedence, and vector biology (
Mitton 1994, Hoffmann et al.
1995, Tabachnick and Black 1995, Roderick 1996, Cavalli-Sforza 1998, Howard
and Berlocher 1998, Schwartz et al. 1998, Rieseberg 1998, Bohonak 1999, Davies
et al. 1999b, Wang and Caballero 1999, Berticat et al. 2000, ffrench-Constant
et al. 2000, Sunnucks 2000, Baldwin et al. 2001, Black et al. 2001, Hewitt 2001
).
This chapter surveys methods that can be used and provides examples in
which molecular methods have been used to resolve population biology and
ecology problems, as well as solutions for pest-management programs.
13.4 Collecting Arthropods in the Field for Analysis
The ability to collect insects from the field may be regulated by state, federal, or
international regulations (
Dick et al. 1993
). Permits are required to collect organ-
isms on certain federal lands (wildlife refuges, national parks, and national mon-
uments) and many state lands in the United States and elsewhere. Endangered
