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the molecular mechanisms that produce this behavioral variation are similar, it
is unknown whether both species inherited them from a common ancestor or
evolved them independently” ( Liang et al. 2012 ).
The pea aphid Acyrthosiphon pisum has differential escape responses to
predator attack (dropping or not dropping off the plant) ( Schuett et  al. 2011 ).
Genetically identical aphid clones expressed different phenotypes (dropper,
nondropper, and inconsistent). Individuals within a clone dropped or did not
drop and the clones varied in their responses. Some clones were consistent over
repeated trials, others contained both consistent and inconsistent individu-
als, one clone failed to produce droppers. Individuals were repeatable in their
escape response in six trials over five days of adult life. When individuals were
reared under different conditions, they were consistent in their tendency to
drop and in the repeatability of their behavior. This study showed clonal indi-
viduals expressed personality variation.
The short- and long-winged individuals of the firebug Pyrrhocoris apterus
(Heteroptera: Pyrrhocoridae) exhibit consistent behaviors over time and across
contexts, indicating that these bugs have personalities. Females of the two
wing morphs have different personalities, with winged females being “braver
and more exploratory.” These data support the model of Wolf et al. (2007) that,
“individuals choose different strategies to find the balance between present
and future reproduction. In the case of firebug, it is known that there are
differences in the behavior of brachypterous and macropterous individuals,
e.g. in the higher walking activity and lowered mating propensity of macropterous
individuals.”
11.6 Symbionts and Insect Behavior
Discovery of the effects of symbionts on insect behavior required the use of
molecular tools to identify and quantify their role in the biology of insects.
Markov et al. (2009) found that mating preference of D. melanogaster depends,
in part, on whether both males and females are infected with Wolbachia .
Assortative mating depended on genotype, infection status, and a combination
of genotype and infection status. Apparently mating choice can, “involve test-
ing the partner for degree of genetic or biochemical similarity with self, based
on chemoreception with possible immune system components” and, in this case,
Wolbachia was a significant component of that testing.
Another example in which symbionts affect the behavior of their host involves
the nucleopolyhedrosis virus of Lymantria dispar ( Hoover et al. 2011 ). The virus
causes infected gypsy moth larvae to climb to the top of their host trees to die
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