Biology Reference
In-Depth Information
Table 10.2: Some Mechanisms of Parthenogenesis in Insects and Mites.
Type
Example: Symbiont type, if present
Reference(s)
Arrhenotoky
Imprinting and
complementary sex
Apis mellifera
, No symbiont
Hasselmann et al. 2008
determiner
gene (
csd
) in heterozygous
state in females plus
feminizer
gene
needed for females
Imprinting prevents transcription of
Nasonia vitripennis
, No symbiont
Verhulst et al. 2010a
transformer
+
in unfertilized eggs
resulting in males
Single-locus multiple-allele
Athalia rosae
, No symbiont
Naito and Suzuki 1991
Thelytoky
Apomixis
Neochrysocharis formosa, Rickettsia
Adachi-Hagimori et al. 2008
Automixis
Leptopilina clavipes, Wolbachia
Pannebakker et al. 2004
Trichogramma, Wolbachia
Huigens et al. 2000
Feminization of males
Brevipalpus phoenicis, Cardinium
Weeks et al. 2001
Eurema hecabe
(ZZ males
feminized),
Wolbachia
Hiroki et al. 2002, Narita
et al. 2007
Zyginidia pullata
(XO males
feminized),
Wolbachia
Negri et al. 2006, 2009
Male killing
D. melanogaster, Spiroplasma
Veneti et al. 2005
Adalia bipunctata, Rickettsia
Werren et al. 1994
Maternal imprinting prevents female
Nasonia
Verhulst et al. 2010b
development in haploid eggs
Single-locus recessive trait in nuclear
Lysiphlebus fabarum
, No symbiont
Sandrock and Vorburger
2011
genome restores diploidy by automixis
Apis mellifera capensis
Lattorff et al. 2005, 2007
Methylation and DNA amplification and
Bombus terrestris
, No symbiont
Bigot et al. 2010
genomic rearrangements
parasitoid
Diadromus pulchellus
(
El Agoze et al. 1994
); the bee
Apis cerana
, the
sawfly
Neodiprion nigroscutum
, the red imported fire ant
Solenopsis invicta
, the
stingless bee
Melipona quadrifasciata
(
Cook 1993
), and the parasitoid
Diadegma
chrysostictos
(
Butcher et al. 2000
).
In other haplo-diploid Hymenoptera, sex is determined by a number of
alleles at a series of loci (
multiple-locus
,
multiple-allele model
). According to
this model, females must be heterozygous at one or more loci, whereas haploid
males are hemizygous (
Crozier 1971
). After inbreeding, some diploid individuals
are produced and these are males if they are homozygous for all loci. These two
“multiple-allele” models can be combined if the assumption is made that the
single-locus model is a special case of the multiple-locus, multiple-allele model.
Under this assumption, only one locus has an effect in the first model.
