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taking did not succeed, the overlapped time ratio increased. In this paper, we defined
overlapped time ratio as robot's moving time during user's lifting per user's lifting
time. Note that the failure of turn taking does not directly mean failure of communica-
tion. If the task is successfully completed, this increased overlapped time suggests
different communication strategies between the manipulator and the player.
We used the player's lifting block time to monitor the player's behavioral time. We
counted the behavioral time from the input video-recorded data. We used the robot's
moving time to monitor the manipulator behavioral time. When the motor moves
more than ten angles in 1 s, we counted this as the behavioral time of the manipulator.
The behavioral time of the player did not include the suspending time in air. Howev-
er, if there was a difference in the overlapped time between the humanlike and
the head-fixed group, this difference suggested that the two groups used different
turn-taking methods.
Our predictions for the head-fixed group in comparison with the humanlike group
are the following:
Prediction 1: The overlapped time ratio will increase depending on the failure of
the turn-taking behavior.
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Prediction 2: The ratio of confirmatory behaviors will decrease.
In the head-fixed group, we asked the manipulator questions such as "Did you use
confirmatory behavior? If so, what kind of confirmation did you use?".
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Results
One male pair in the humanlike group and two male pairs in the head-fixed group
could not finish assembling the blocks. Other pairs succeeded in this task.
The average overlapped time ratio in the humanlike group is .608 (SD = .062). The
average overlapped time ratio in the head-fixed group is .761 (SD = .125). We applied
the Welch t-test to both groups and the p-value is .0043 < .05. This statistical result
shows that the overlapped time ratio in both groups is significantly different. This
result supports the first prediction. The overlapped time ratio is shown in Fig. 8.
When we removed the failed pairs, the average overlapped time ratio in the human-
like group is .792 (SD = .132) and the overlapped time ratio in the head-fixed group is
.132 (SD = .151). The p-value from the Welch's t-test is .01 < .05, which also suggests
significant difference.
The questionnaires after the experiment showed that all manipulators in the hu-
manlike group used head nodding and shaking for confirmation. In contrast, nine
manipulators in the head-fixed group raised their hand for confirmation and shook
their hand for denying. Two manipulators in the head-fixed group answered that they
did not use confirmation in their communication. Based on this result, we counted the
raising and shaking hands as confirmation in the head-fixed group.
The players use two kinds of confirmations before and after lifting the blocks. Con-
firmation before lifting the blocks (before-confirmation) was used to point which
block is right or wrong. Confirmation after lifting the blocks (after-confirmation)
was used to point which location and direction is right or wrong. We counted both
confirmations.
