Tree Growing on Farms in Northeast Luzon (The Philippines): Smallholders’ Motivations and Other Determinants for Adopting Agroforestry Systems - Smallholder Tree Growing for Rural Development and Environmental Services - page 72

number of elderly or dependent children within a household and the number of
working-age adults. Whether or not specific technologies are adopted depends on
the way the specific technology fits into the livelihood system of farm households
in a given area (Scherr 1995; Bannister and Nair 2003) and the dynamics to which
these households are exposed (Vosti et al. 1997).
Mercer (2004) mentions that the biophysical properties of farm fields have often
been ignored in adoption studies. But if included, they often turn out to be predic-
tive of adoption patterns even though the type of the relationships is often inconsist-
ent. It remains unclear under what soil conditions farmers prefer to grow trees and
whether conservation motivations play a role in farmers' decision. Furthermore,
insecure tenure is generally hypothesized as a negative factor in households' will-
ingness to plant trees on their farms. Although this has been confirmed by some
empirical evidence, it definitely does not apply everywhere (Mercer 2004).
The literature demonstrates that there are multiple motivations of smallholders
to integrate trees in their household economy, including household and market
demands, market accessibility, secure marketing channels, technical knowledge
about tree crop production and familiarity with a specific species (e.g., Scherr 1995;
Arnold and Dewees 1995). To better understand smallholders' reasoning for grow-
ing trees, it is crucial to question what contribution trees have to rural households
and how trees are valued by smallholders in terms of income, conservation value,
and other factors. A study in Panama demonstrates that farmers are aware of the
positive contribution of tree-based systems on soil quality and erosion control
(Fischer and Vasseur 2002), although their main motivation for growing trees is the
production of fruit, fuelwood and wood. Yet, households differ in their perception
of the role of trees in their farms and accord different values to different tree
species.
Because land use is rapidly changing under current processes of globalization
and population growth, it is the more interesting to study the adoption of sustaina-
ble tree-based systems in the light of past and current changes. For example in a
study in Western Kenya, Scherr (1995) found evidence of past increases in tree cul-
tivation at times of ecological degradation, a decrease in natural tree supplies, and
an increase in the demand for tree products for subsistence and marketing purposes.
Likewise Arnold and Dewees (1995) describe how, under conditions of declining
natural tree resources, private tree management and integration pass through different
stages (based on Raintree and Warner 1986). Where land use is extensive and tree
cover still vast due to low population pressure, private tree management tends to be
passive. Where land and natural tree resources become scarcer and land use intensi-
fies, tree management takes on a more active role. This is confirmed by a study on
tree-growing in Nepal (Gilmour in Arnold and Dewees 1995) where tree densities
on private land in the Middle Hills increased over past decade because of diminish-
ing forest resources. Trees, particularly those crucial in household economies, had
been deliberately planted, or their natural regeneration encouraged, by local farm-
ers. Continuing along this line of land-use intensification and associated tree loss,
local farmers devise new strategies to increase their tree resource base. Fairhead
and Leach's highly influential publications (1996, 1998) form likewise a good