Perceptions of Ethnic Minorities on Tree Growing for Environmental Services in Thailand - Smallholder Tree Growing for Rural Development and Environmental Services - page 396

as from the early 19th century only. However, in remote upland areas such as Mae
Chaem, the Karen may have settled before the Thai. The Hmong have inhabited
Chiang Mai in considerable numbers for less than a hundred years (Renard 1981).
A variety of slash-and-burn cultivation methods has prevailed as a source of
livelihood among the upland ethnic minorities. Transformation in terms of farming
methods and cultivated crops has, however, occurred. Rotational slash-and-burn
cultivation is still practised, but on a smaller scale than before and often with short-
ened fallow periods. The common shifting cultivation method used among the
Hmong in which the same field was not necessarily reused is no longer practised.
The government has worked actively to replace slash-and-burn with other farming
methods based on permanent fields in order to avoid encroachment onto forest
land. New forms of agroforestry have been encouraged as alternatives for slash-
and-burn cultivation. Another change has occurred in the types of crops grown.
Whereas some farmers were formerly involved in/committed to growing opium
poppies ( Papaver somniferum L.), these have almost disappeared due to eradication
campaigns which were particularly vigorous in the 1980s. Opium poppies were
then replaced with new, often temperate crops, such as cabbage ( Brassica oleracea
var. capitata L.). Rice ( Oryza sativa L.) is still the main crop for subsistence but
the importance of cash crops (such as potato, cabbage, carrot and cut flowers) has
increased.
The study area's upland forests are largely protected by law. Two national parks
extend into the area (Doi Inthanon and Mae Tho) and for the most part the uplands
are classified as first-priority watersheds and are therefore strictly protected. The
Mae Chaem watershed is regarded as important since it contributes to 16 percent
of the flow of the Chao Phraya River which is the largest river in Thailand and
flows through the central regions to the Gulf of Thailand.
The study used qualitative methodology for data gathering and analysis. The
primary material was gathered by interviews in villages (totalling 77 interviews in
five selected upland villages; see Table 19.1): semi-structured interviews with
open-ended questions were complemented by thematic individual and group inter-
views but also informal discussions. Representatives of various age groups,
both men (53 percent) and women (47 percent) were interviewed. Other villages in
the area were also included for complementary information. In addition, local
non-governmental organization (NGO) staff of CARE Thailand and forestry,
watershed and district officials were interviewed. The interviews were conducted
with the assistance of interpreters in three different languages.

19.3 Local Perceptions on the Role of Trees in Environmental

Conservation

A general consensus that the forest and trees are vital for people's livelihood in the
upland villages and their protection is therefore essential prevailed among each
ethnic group in this study. The interviewees acknowledged the forest as a place for