Agriculture Reference
In-Depth Information
“
The problem is not one that can be solved by bureaucratic tinkering with the formal design
of the institutions and processes involved, since it is a problem not of formal structures but
of the actual function and substance of real relationships, which reflect the nature and
exercise of power in rural society
” (White 1999: 251).
13.1 Introduction
Is the promotion of commercial smallholder tree plantations an appropriate rural
development strategy in contexts of severe rural poverty and livelihood vulnerabil-
ity? In Southeast Asia, this question is an important one, for guiding more effective
state policies and donor projects. Given the questionable track record of success of
public sector investments into forestry in Asia (Mir 2003), and often serious prob-
lems of mismanagement, corruption, and poor planning which have arisen, there
are serious questions concerning the actual utility of smallholder tree planting
projects for poverty reduction in the region. Despite numerous documented prob-
lems, the popularity of smallholder tree planting programs for bilateral donors and
development banks continues, in large part due to the pressing situation with
respect to forest degradation and rural poverty in much of Asia. The most immedi-
ate goals of smallholder tree planting are often to raise rural income levels by suc-
cessfully linking farmers to new national or regional markets for forest products
(see Scherr 2004). When combined with improvements in rural governance and
removal of restrictive policy barriers, smallholder forestry can serve as a basis for
additional objectives. Benefits are thought to follow from securing tenure rights,
including facilitating access to sources of formal credit, which can promote virtu-
ous cycles of investments in productivity. The requirements of smallholder forestry
programs for official tenure security may also form a basis for promoting ecological
conservation, and possibly, for developing markets for ecosystem services (e.g.
Scherr et al. 2002).
However smallholder tree planting projects are about much more than the tech-
nical practices of planting and growing trees on farms. Different groups of people
can impute very differing meanings and objectives into tree planting activities, and
this in turn can have a major effect on project outcomes and the 'success' of farmer-
led forestry (e.g. Schroeder 1999 on tree planting and gender relations in the
Gambia). As major donor-based smallholder tree planting projects can involve
considerable financing packages, they can also present significant opportunities for
elite actors to influence resource allocations in contexts of uneven governance con-
trols. Tree planting projects can thus become arenas for political control and patron-
age, and there is a constant potential for scarce public funds and donor resources to
be misdirected or rendered ineffective as smallholder tree planting projects to fail
in field implementation.
In bringing into focus the political relationships and project framings of local
poverty and vulnerability which can characterize smallholder tree plantation efforts,
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