Geoscience Reference
In-Depth Information
The analysis function enables the application of query, proximity, centrality and
other functions to one or more information layers. Finally, the visual presentation
of data and results has been a core component of all GIS packages and offers tools
for the production of digital map, figures and graphic displays. For more details on
the structure and the functionality of GIS packages see Murray ( 2010 ) and de Smith
et al. ( 2013 ).
19.2.2
GIS Software
The basic functions described above can be performed by a large variety of GIS
packages that has become available to both academic and commercial users over
the years. The list is long and rapidly changing. Many of these packages are free
while others are available for a small fee to all or selected groups of users. Special
reference must be made to the development of open source GIS, which has become
a long tradition in the history of GIS, with the appearance of the first package in
1978. In open source applications users may freely access and modify the source
code, thus providing the package with an ever increasing range of capabilities. Such
projects typically involve a large number of volunteer programmers. Finally, there
exist numerous GIS commercial products that are licensed at varying per user prices,
from a few hundred to over a thousand US dollars per user.
Access to spatial data as well as advanced mapping and spatial analysis over
the Internet is becoming more common. As a result, a wide range of web-based or
web-deployed tools has been developed, enabling the representation and analysis
of datasets, without the need for local GIS software installation. Following the
advances in cloud computing, GIS Cloud has been suggested as an approach to
upgrade the conventional GIS applications in order to provide a broad spectrum of
services to the users across the globe (Bhat et al. 2011 ). In fact several leading GIS
vendors have already developed GIS Cloud solutions in order to provide on-demand
services to their clients.
Detailed lists and reviews of GIS products can be found in Wikipedia and
in specialist magazines and websites such as Geoplace ( www.geoplace.com ) and
Geocommunity ( www.geocomm.com ) .
According to de Smith et al. ( 2013 ), a frequent criticism of GIS software is that it
is over-complicated, resource-hungry and requires specialist expertise to understand
and use. Indeed, in many applications, only a handful of the capabilities provided
by modern GIS is exploited. As a result, many users prefer to utilize specialized
tools for their required analytical work and draw on the strengths of GIS in data
management and mapping to provide input/output and visualization functionality.
Example approaches include: (i) using high-level programming facilities within
a GIS (e.g., macros, scripts, VBA, Python)—in fact, many libraries and add-ins
have been developed in this way; (ii) using wide-ranging programmable spatial
analysis software libraries and toolsets that incorporate GIS file reading, writing and
display, such as R-Spatial; (iii) using general purpose data processing toolsets such
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