Threats from Oil and Gas Projects in the Western Amazon - Recent Advances and Issues in Environmental Science - page 148

contamination in the northern Ecuadorian [20, 21] and northern Peruvian Amazon
[22, 23]. Even the much newer Camisea pipeline, which began operations in the fall of
2004, had 5 major spills in its fi rst 18 months of operation [24]. A 1990s-era oil opera-
tion experienced a major spill in Ecuador's Yasuní region as recently as January, 2008
[25]. There are also direct impacts associated with seismic testing activities during the
exploration phase of projects [17, 26].
Indirect effects arise from the easy access to previously remote primary forest
provided by new oil roads and pipeline routes, causing increased logging, hunting,
and deforestation from human settlement [27-29]. For example, much of the extensive
deforestation in the northern and central Ecuadorian Amazon followed colonization
along the oil access roads [30-32].
Social impacts are also considerable. The national representative organizations
of indigenous peoples in Ecuador (CONAIE) and the Peruvian Amazon (AIDESEP)
have opposed new oil and gas projects, citing the widespread contamination from
previous and current oil projects [33, 34]. In both countries, local residents and indig-
enous peoples have taken legal actions against US oil companies for allegedly dump-
ing billions of gallons of toxic waste into the forests [35-37]. Intense opposition from
indigenous peoples has stopped exploration in two leased blocks in Ecuador (Blocks
23 and 24) for over 7 years [38]. Deforestation and colonization following road build-
ing has affected the core territory of several indigenous groups in Ecuador. Oil and gas
projects in the territories of indigenous peoples in voluntary isolation have become
highly contentious. These peoples, so named due to their decision of avoiding contact
with the outside world [11], inhabit remote parts of the western Amazon [11-13] and
are extremely vulnerable because they lack resistance or immunity from outsiders' dis-
eases [39]. First contact results in high rates of morbidity and mortality, with mortality
estimates ranging between a third and half of the population within the fi rst several
years [11].
The extent and intensity of oil and gas exploration and development in the western
Amazon may soon increase rapidly. Information on the future of oil and gas activities
across the entire region is limited. Here, we quantify and map the extent of current
and proposed oil and gas activity across the western Amazon using information from
government and news sources. We document how the oil and gas blocks overlap areas
of peak biodiversity, protected areas, and indigenous territories. Finally, we discuss
policy options that might mitigate the impacts.
There are now ~180 oil and gas blocks covering ~688,000 km 2 of forest in
the western Amazon (Figure 2). At least 35 multinational oil and gas companies
operate these blocks, which overlap the most species-rich part of the Amazon for
amphibians, birds, and mammals (Figure 3). Oil and gas projects affect the forest
of all western Amazonian nations, but to varying degrees. For example, in both
Ecuador and Peru blocks now cover more than two-thirds of the Amazon, while
in Colombia that fraction is less than one-tenth. In Bolivia and western Brazil,
historical impacts are minimal, but the area open to oil and gas exploration is
increasing rapidly.