Food Sources: Earth, Water, and Air - Food Culture and Health in Pre-Modern Islamic Societies - page 46

the Persian Gulf littoral, Fārs, in the
neighbourhood of Ifahān, in some dis-
tricts in eastern Persia and on the shores
of Lake Urumiyya (Riāiyya). They are
still used, but have been largely super-
seded by power-operated wells. Man-op-
erated wells consist of a windlass set over
the well with a large leather bag attached
to it. Those operated by draught animals
are worked by one or more animals such
as oxen, mules and, less frequently, buf-
faloes, each animal having one or more
men working with it. The constructing
of these devices varies slightly in differ-
ent regions, but the general principle is
the same. Their operation is both labori-
ous and inefficient. A wooden wheel is set
in two brick or stone built pillars, or two
heavy upright posts, above the well, con-
nected by a wooden scaffold. Two pulleys
are run on axles attached to the scaffold,
over which a main and an auxiliary rope
run into the well; the wheel end of the
main rope is attached to a hook and a
ring carrying a wooden cross from which
a large leather bag is suspended. This
runs out into a narrow spout to which the
auxiliary rope is attached. The draught
animal is harnessed to the ropes and sets
the wheel in motion by walking up and
down a runway beginning at the well-
head and descending at an angle of about
20 degrees. By this action, the bag is let
into the well. When it is full, it is lifted to
the surface and empties itself in front of
the well into a trough which carries the
water into the irrigation channel. In some
wells, a big wooden horizontal cog-wheel,
geared to a vertical wheel which turns a
bucket-carrying wheel set on the same
axle in the water is set in motion by an
ox or mule walking round and round a
circular runway made about the well.

especially common in districts on the edge
of the central desert, though they are also
to be found elsewhere, notably in Fūmināt.
They are supplied by water from anāt s,
underground springs or rain-water. Some
are made with stones or bricks and cement
and are often of a considerable size. Abd
al-Raīm arrābī states that almost all
the villages and hamlets in Kā ª ān had
small cisterns ( ista ¶ r ); that of Niyāsar was
100 £ ar by 50 £ ar and 2/2 £ ar deep.
He describes the purpose of an ista ¶ r as
follows: “In some hamlets ( mazāri ) the
water is less than [the amount required
for] a plot of land ( kardū ) for the first rota-
tion when water is due to be let into sown
land or orchards. As a result, it takes a
long time for the plot to be inundated,
because when the quantity of water is
small, as soon as it enters the land it sinks
in and the plot will not be inundated.
Accordingly, water is held back in a cis-
tern ( ista ¶ r ). When the latter is full, it is
emptied, or whatever amount is needed
for the land is let into the irrigation chan-
nel until the desired result is achieved. Or
it may be that the water of a hamlet is
sufficient for the first rotation period but
it is desired to lead the water to a piece of
land ( da ª t ) or fields ( mazāri ) which are dis-
tant, and so half or more of the water will
be lost in the channel between the mouth
of the anāt and the land to be irrigated,
with the result that the plot will not be
inundated (unless a greater head of water
is first held back in a cistern). Or it may
be that a village has [sufficient water] in
the first rotation period for three or four
pieces of land, and it wishes to divide the
water into three or four irrigation chan-
nels, some giving more water and some
less. A cistern is therefore necessary, so
that the requisite amount can be let into
each irrigation channel, or so that water
from two or three sources can be let
into different channels and then divided
( sari ¡ a-paymāī namā-yand )”. amd Allāh

(iii) Cisterns, water tanks and ponds
These are to be found in regions in
which water supplies are scarce and are