The Power and Transportation Future - Hydrogen and Fuel Cells: Advances in Transportation and Power - page 256

burn hydrogen with a few inexpensive modifications. Automakers, in-
cluding Ford and BMW, have been working on hydrogen ICE cars which
have the advantage over gasoline engines of very low emissions of ur-
ban air pollutants. But, there is the relatively high cost of today's hydro-
gen. Hydrogen engines are about 25% more efficient than gasoline units
but they are likely to have a smaller driving range due to the problem of
storing large volumes of hydrogen onboard. The higher price of hydro-
gen makes annual vehicle costs for mid-sized hydrogen vehicles almost
one third higher than for gasoline vehicles. This is slightly lower than the
estimated annual costs for fuel cell vehicles, according to a report by the
Arthur D. Little firm.
Because of the energy used in generating hydrogen from natural
gas or electricity and the energy required to compress hydrogen for stor-
age, the total energy use of a hydrogen internal combustion engine can be
higher than a gasoline engine. One study of ten different alternative fuel
vehicles found that burning hydrogen from natural gas had the lowest
overall efficiency on a total energy consumed basis.
The U.S. General Accounting Office (GAO) found that officials from
federal agencies and state governments pointed to the lack of a refueling
infrastructure more than any other reason to avoid alternative fuels.
Fleet use is one strategy for alternative fuel commercialization. It was
the main strategy that the DOE used in the 1990s to meet the goals of the
Energy Policy Act of 1992. Vehicle fleets are typically driven twice as many
miles compared to private vehicles and make up about one fourth of all
U.S. light-duty vehicle sales. Many fleet vehicles have fixed daily routes
and are regularly fueled at one location, so less infrastructure is needed to
support fleet-based vehicles.
A survey of almost 3,700 California fleets, found several reasons why
central fueling may actually be a problem for alternate fuels. Light-duty
fleets often reduce fuel costs by purchasing petroleum in bulk. But, hy-
drogen has been more expensive than gasoline on an equivalent energy
basis. High travel demands do not match well with fuels that have shorter
ranges and limited refueling stations. Gasoline or diesel vehicles provide
a longer driving range and can also refuel at commercial gas stations.
About 80% of public fleets use central refueling, but only about one
third of business fleets do and most of those also use commercial fueling
stations. Most fleets that centrally refuel use outside sources for at least
15% of their refueling. The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has
had major concerns over fuel leakage and underground water contamina-