Behavior Genetics of the Horse (Equus caballus) - Genetics and the Behavior of Domestic Animals - page 238

behavior. There are conflicting results. A few of these studies closely fol-
lowed the procedures of “imprint training” outlined by Miller, while other
studies varied considerably. In 14 Arabian, 7 Quarter horse, and 2
Thoroughbred foals, Mal et al. (1994) and Mal and McCall (1996) looked at
reactions to novelty, as well as individual manageability in minimally han-
dled foals (routine and emergency veterinary care only), intermediately han-
dled (10 minutes twice daily for one week), and extensively handled foals
(same as the intermediate group and additionally once weekly for 10 minutes
until weaning). During handling sessions, both sides of the foal's body from
ears to tail head, including the belly and the legs to the knees or hocks, were
rubbed. They found no difference between groups in manageability and
response to novelty. Diehl et al. (2002) looked at mare

foal interactions in
minimally handled foals (routine veterinary care) versus intensive (Miller
method) handling of Standardbred foals. The mares were not restrained dur-
ing the 4-hour post-foaling period, and no differences were observed in the
behavior of the mares towards the handler in either group However, mares of
intensively handled foals spent less time eating and drinking, and more time
sniffing their foals. Using 15 foals of mixed breeds, Simpson (2002) per-
formed an intensive handling protocol at between 2 and 8 hours following
birth, and again once daily for 5 days. Reactions to stimuli similar to that
used during the intensive handling procedure were measured at four months.
Overall, the handled foals had more favorable scores for calmness and
friendliness toward handlers, but there were no significant differences in
compliance between handled and control foals. Williams et al. (2002) fol-
lowed Miller's imprinting procedure closely, except they did not begin with
the handled foals until the foals had stood and nursed. Forty-six Quarter
horse foals, and one Thoroughbred foal were handled at various times within
the first 72 hours. Subsequent reactions to handling were measured at one,
two, and three months of age. They found no differences in handled com-
pared to control foals. Lansade et al. (2004) followed a handling procedure
close to the procedure used by Miller (1991) on 13 Welsh foals. The first
handling session was performed between 1 and 6 hours following birth, the
second at 24 hours, and the third at 36 hours following birth. The results
showed that neonatal handling had short-term effects on manageability 2
days after the handling period (time to fit a halter, time to pick up feet, and
leading on a halter). However, at 12 months of age, there was no significant
difference in manageability between the handled and control animals. In a
review of these studies, Diehl et al. (2002) states that “there have been no
consistent positive findings connected to early intensive handling with regard
to compliance and long-term benefits in training or in reaction to novelty or
potentially fearful situations.”
To get a sense of the horse owners' opinions, we read online blog post-
ings from horse owners with “imprinted” foals. Some of the words used to
describe the behavior of the foals emphasized the bewildering and variable