Reproductive and Maternal Behavior of Livestock - Genetics and the Behavior of Domestic Animals - page 179

elicits from the mare are indicators of her degree of receptivity. Estrous behav-
ioral responses have also been obtained from mares when they were exposed
to simulations of stallion courting behaviors such as playing recordings of stal-
lion vocalizations and manually manipulating their external genitalia ( Crowell-
Davis, 2007 ) with the latter possibly also improving passive sperm transport.

Maternal Behavior of Horses
Gestation length in horses is approximately 11 months in duration and is
influenced by the genotype of the fetus and the uterine environment
( Rossdale and Short, 1967 ) with heritability, in an early study, being esti-
mated at 0.36 ( Rollins and Howell, 1951 ). During the last month of gesta-
tion, the mare may undergo false labors on several occasions. These usually
last no longer than 10 minutes, are not rhythmic and will slow down after a
short period of time. Signs of approaching parturition are: the distention of
the udder (2 6 weeks before parturition (b. p.), relaxation of the muscles in

the croup area (7

10 days b. p.), teat enlargement (4 6 days b. p.), and a

waxy secretion oozing out of the nipples (2 4 days b. p.) ( Evans, 2000 ).

The day before parturition, a drop in body temperature is observed, and dur-
ing the night of parturition (about 80% of mares foal at night) mares show
increased walking and lying in recumbency with decreased standing ( Shaw
et al., 1988 ). Once the fetal membranes rupture, normal labor takes usually
not longer than 20 30 minutes.

Z´rek and Danek (2011) described the following as normal maternal
behaviors occurring immediately after parturition: nuzzling, licking, groom-
ing, avoiding stepping or laying on the newborn, enabling and giving assis-
tance with suckling, protecting the foal from potential danger by positioning
itself between the infant and the hazard, and even attacking and repelling the
intruder. Whether in the wild or in domesticity, maternal care is crucial for
the survival of the foal ( Heitor and Vicente, 2008 ) and the strength of the
maternal attachment can be measured by the duration of nursing bouts,
mutual grooming, and general proximity between mare and foal ( Waran
et al., 2008 ). Horses are classified as “followers” and the foal must be ready
to follow the mare within hours after birth. Mare foal bonding occurs

immediately after birth, triggered by maternal hormones and the mare's view
of the wet, uncoordinated foal ( Houpt, 2000, 2002 ). The mare's attachment
to the foal is almost immediate whereas foals need some days to be truly
linked to their mothers. In Arab horses, a relationship between temperament,
measured as the behavioral reactivity (fearfulness) and heart rate in response
to rotating black

white squares (Fearfulness-test), and maternal ability has
been identified. Fearless dams vocalized more and displayed greater maternal
behavior than fearful mares which is vitally important for survival of the foal
( Budzynska and Krupa, 2011 ). In general, poor maternal abilities have been
reported in Arabian mares ( Houpt, 2002 ).