Reproductive and Maternal Behavior of Livestock - Genetics and the Behavior of Domestic Animals - page 172

gestation length is considered as beneficial because it is associated with
increased viability of neonatal kids ( Mellado et al., 2000 ) although this does
not apply to pathological causes of prolonged gestation. Depending upon
nutritional opportunity and the risk of predation, feral goats may exhibit
either following or lying-out behavior at birth ( O'Brien, 1984 ). However,
domestic goats mostly isolate themselves from conspecifics at birth, with
this trait being more evident in multiparous dams than in those kidding for
the first time.
Amniotic fluids are considered to be the main trigger for the onset of
maternal responsiveness and development of the doe-kid bond ( Poindron
et al., 2010 ). In this study, kids generally first suckled within the first hour
after birth, with the mother

young pair remaining together at the birth site
for an average of 18 hours during which they were in constant contact.
Vocal cues were exchanged in the period immediately following birth and
the doe engaged in a considerable amount of licking and grooming of kids
during the first 2 hours. In an investigation of vocal recognition, does were
able to discriminate their own kids' vocal cues from other non-related kids
( Terrazas et al., 2003 ). In a comparative study of intrinsic maternal factors
of Saanen, German Fawn and Damascus goats, Saanen had an increased like-
lihood of requiring birth assistance and Damascus goats exhibited the longest
duration of licking and grooming ( Ocak and Onder, 2011 ). It is possible that
intensive genetic improvement programs for increased production have
reduced maternal abilities as less intensively selected Norduz breeds had
higher maternal abilities than more intensively selected Karakas breeds
( Yilmaz et al., 2011 ). If so, this needs to be considered in future selection
programs.

Biostimulation in Sheep and Goats
It has been long recognized that rams, under certain circumstances, can stim-
ulate estrus and ovulation in females, with this phenomenon being termed
“the ram effect”. This effect is exploited in both sheep and goat management
to stimulate the onset of both puberty and estrus, and when employed at the
beginning of the breeding season, to facilitate synchronization of both estrus
and ovulation. Although the degree of response obtained varies with geno-
type and latitude, it represents a valuable management tool under most cir-
cumstances ( Delgadillo et al., 2009 ).
The mechanism by which this occurs is considered to be largely phero-
monal and mediated via the female vomero-nasal organ (VNO) as reviewed
by Gelez and Fabre-Nys (2004) . This is because direct physical or visual
contact between rams and ewes is not necessary to induce stimulation; urine,
wax and wool from rams are as effective as is the presence of the ram
(Izard, 1983) and this appears to be the same in goats ( Iwata et al., 2000 )in
which a priming pheromone has been identified ( Iwata et al., 2003 ). Many