Environmental Engineering Reference
In-Depth Information
BOX 4-2
Horns Rev 1
One of the first large offshore wind farms, the 80-wind turbine,
160-MW Horns Rev 1 facility located off the coast of Denmark,
was built in 2002. Early in the facility's operating life the turbines
experienced numerous failures, including each of the 80 wind tur-
bine transformers, generators, torque arms on gearboxes, light-
ning receptors on blades, and foundation coatings. All 80 nacelles
were taken ashore for modification. The failures likely set back
development of the offshore wind industry throughout Europe as
industry and regulators evaluated technical risk and reliability
issues. Subsequently, widespread failures in the grouting connec-
tion between the foundation and the intermediate support struc-
tures have occurred at Gunfleet Sands wind farms and at the
Danish Horns Rev 2 facility (Wan 2010). If such systemwide fail-
ures are not avoided, they will negatively affect the development
of offshore wind resources as they erode the confidence of both
potential investors and the public.
Regulatory oversight in other U.S. industries began with such a pre-
scriptive approach but, in some areas, has been evolving toward a more
“performance-based” approach (see Box 4-3). The following discussion
illustrates this evolution by reviewing regulatory developments in the oil
and gas industry, the marine shipping industry, and the civil infrastruc-
ture industry. It then turns to options for addressing the deficiencies of
existing standards and regulations when applied to oversight of the U.S.
offshore wind industry.
Oil and Gas Industry
As discussed in
History of the Oil and Gas Industry in Southern Louisiana
(MMS 2004), the first oil and gas structure, built in 1937, was a massive
wooden platform constructed in about 15 feet of water in the Creole field
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