Agriculture Reference
In-Depth Information
been used for group certification in developing countries (see
Chapters
9
and
14
). Various
stakeholders including farmers and certification agency representatives meet for discussions,
out of which comes a new understanding for farmers (e.g. more technical knowledge about
organic farming, expanded personal networks) and agency staff (e.g. more knowledge about
local constraints for organic production), and ultimately refined standards and certification
methods are produced. Ideally, the standards are temporary and always subject to revision,
and are the outcome of a cooperative learning process rather than an instrumental process
dominated by a few powerful interests (see
Chapter
14
).
Strategies to maintain and strengthen the effectiveness of organic certification have been
identified (Consumers Union 2003, see also
Chapters
7
,
9
,
10
and
14
):
• internal control systems as a tool for smallholder group certification;
• participatory guarantee systems in formalised regulatory systems;
• complementary regulatory structures to provide assurance across sectors and regions;
• transparent auditing and verification systems; and
• approval of allowable inputs based on peer-reviewed science.
Rural and regional deelopment potential
More people depend on agriculture in developing countries than in the industrialised countries
of Europe, North America and parts of Asia-Pacific. Subsistence is often the first priority, after
which goods for the market can be bartered or sold for cash. In this scenario, organic agricul-
ture, or parts of it at least, may be a useful development tool. Just as integrated teaching methods
suit organic farming courses, the emphasis on integration and multidisciplinarity in organic
farming readily complements participatory approaches to development, and indigenous intel-
lectual and material resources are often compatible with organic farming (see
Special
topic
5
).
There are many examples of the beneficial role of organic agriculture in sustainable devel-
opment in poorer rural areas (e.g. Parrott
et
al
. 2005, Tafuna'i 2005, see also
Chapters
7
,
9
,
14
and
Special
topic
5
), although its effectiveness has been poor in many places partly as a result of
a lack of local demand for certified organic products and limited export potential due to com-
pliance problems (e.g. cost and disease restrictions) (see
Chapters
7
and
14
). Agricultural
development projects should start from existing local practices, yields and knowledge and not
from the promises of a new technology. Extension and support should be a mixture of techni-
cal, social and cultural approaches suited to the learning styles of the target group. Where
possible, activities should expand beyond an initial disciplinary subject approach using a top-
down extension method into an integrated approach with a participatory development process.
These guidelines would be relevant for extension and research activities with farmers in any
country and are not unique to development settings (see
Special
topic
5
).
Farming systems technology
To develop a successful farming system requires a combination of personal skills, suitable land
and a market for the produce. In particular, successful on-farm production requires careful
consideration of local conditions. Although the organic standards and the collective knowledge
of organic farmers can be used for guidance, some experimentation will be required to manage
each unique combination of weeds, pests and soil imbalances. For example, internal parasites in
livestock pose a major problem for organic and low-input sheep graziers around the world and
conventional graziers are facing resistance to chemical drenches (Welsman 2001, Keatinge
et
al
.
2002, Githiori
et
al
. 2003). The potential for collaborative research into non-chemical means of
managing livestock parasites could involve grazing strategies, phytomedicines, breeding and
novel veterinary treatments (e.g. homeopathy) (see
Chapters
6
,
7
and
Special
topic
2
).
