Agriculture Reference
In-Depth Information
• social dynamics (see
Chapters
9
,
11
,
14
,
16
and
17
);
• animal husbandry (see
Chapters 7
,
8
and
9
);
• determining goals for breeding and selection and maintaining genetic diversity, including
livestock rare breeds and heirloom crop varieties (see
Chapters 4
,
5
and
6
); and
• economic management, specifically market access, price stability and cash flow (see
Chapter 10
).
Knowledge networks - education
Much of the education and training in organic agriculture has taken place in apprentice-type
situations with farmers as teachers and young people as learners in a practical, hands-on
learning environment. This has evolved into the global tradition of strong farmer groups in
the organic movement (see
Chapter
16
). Some of this experience is being captured through
farm visits and other teaching methods, and linked with educational theory to develop courses
in organic agriculture in universities. Like research into organic agricultural systems, there is
usually a lack of institutional support in most countries. The only consistent exceptions are
courses offered by organic grower groups. International tertiary education links have been
established within European countries and between Europe and other regions such as North
America and Australia. Many universities now offer individual subjects, majors and full
courses in organic agriculture, providing a valuable pool of agronomists, veterinarians, exten-
sion officers and other specialists with specific training in organic principles and practices (see
Chapter
16
).
Organic farms are inevitably complex places, with greater biological and enterprise diver-
sity than conventional farms (see
Chapters
12
and
17
). There are many competing factors to
manage and decision making is challenging. In addition, these is less chance of contacting a
commercial or government agronomist and seeking advice, though this is changing as the
upstream end of the supply chain grows with 'biofertiliser' products proliferating at agricul-
tural field days and in industry magazines. Sound management skills and independence are
therefore vital. These preconditions for successful organic farming - complexity and inde-
pendence - are important because they inf luence how organic education can be taught (see
Chapter
17
). In developing a curriculum, a course should 'help prepare students to deal with
the complexity and uncertainty they will face in working for sustainable agriculture and food
systems for the future' (see
Chapter
16
). In several tertiary courses on organic agriculture there
is an expectation that organic agriculture students will be able to cope with student-centred
learning, perhaps on a problem-based learning or case study project (Lieblein
et
al
. 2005).
Student-centred learning is preferred because it increases the amount of information process-
ing, as opposed to simple memorising, producing deeper learning (see
Chapters
16
and
17
).
There is also an emphasis on experiential learning, preferably involving considerable interac-
tion with organic farmers on their farms. Although not exclusively relevant to organic agricul-
ture, integrated teaching approaches have good conceptual alignment with integrated (organic)
farming approaches as both foster skills in managing complexity and independent critical
thinking (see
Chapter
17
). The teaching approach suggested by Sriskandarajah
et
al
. (see
Chapter 16
) and used in many agricultural courses around the world has limitations, including
the costs involved with running field trips for students, the facilitation skills required to deliver
experiential-based curricula effectively and the inf lexible administrative structures of tertiary
institutions.
The conceptual models presented in the chapters on social responsibility, tertiary educa-
tion and farmer education show uncanny harmony (Table 18.1). Despite considerable discipli-
nary overlap, this convergence of models was not as a result of similar theoretical sources (the
relevant citations are different in each chapter). Instead, the models highlight the simple
