Agriculture Reference
In-Depth Information
Despite the generally positive outlook, the organic movement faces several hurdles as it
expands internationally. A recent review of organic farming listed several challenges facing
organic agriculture (Halberg
et
al
. 2005a) including:
• ecological justice;
• animal welfare;
• fair trade;
• supply chain development;
• productivity limitations; and
• regional adaptation and global harmonisation for standards.
Many of these can be seen through one lens, the need to remain dynamic. New issues and
changed circumstances require on-going adaptation by the organic movement. To embrace
these wider concerns, the organic movement needs to maintain f flexibility in the regulations
and the processes used to implement the regulations. As additional client countries and novel
products apply for organic certification, new processes and production guidelines will be
required in many cases (Woodward and Vogtmann 2004, Köpke 2005). After a period of
expansion since the 1980s, a stage may have been reached where the organic movement is being
confronted by limits in its ability to initiate change without itself changing (see
Chapter
9
).
This tension has become explicit in the corporatisation of organic agriculture (Ikerd 1999,
Guthman 2000, Sligh and Christman 2003, see also
Special
topic
3
for further discussion).
The need for adaptability is increased by global marketing chains and electronic media that
can now provide fast transfer of products and ideas. New commodities are continually being
developed by producers and embraced by consumers. Even food scares can alter buying
patterns very rapidly. In this dynamic marketing environment, organic agriculture is being
moulded by socioeconomic factors well beyond its control (see
Chapter
17
).
But the process of reviewing and ref lection within the organic movement is not new. The
movement has continually transformed itself as it has grown and matured in Europe from the
1920s to the establishment of international groups, such as the International Federation of
Organic Agriculture Movements (IFOAM) in the 1970s, and the export of organic farming
beyond Europe has seen organic groups around the world create locally adapted networks and
solutions to certification, production and supply problems (Reed 2003, see
Chapter 1
). Along
with new territory, organic production has captured new industries, necessitating the develop-
ment and integration of completely new standards for forestry, aquaculture and textiles
(IFOAM 2005). Another challenge is the controversial role of contamination by genetically
modified organisms (GMO). However, despite strong opposition to GMOs throughout the
movement, senior members of the organic movement are beginning to look at the suitability of
zero tolerance (Clay 2003).
Without robust and comprehensive social and environmental accounting, the broad
question could be asked: Is modern conventional agriculture just an expensive indulgence for
aff luent countries? Although agricultural and food production in the modern world has suc-
cessfully increased overall yields and overcome many biophysical limitations, it has also been
a destructive force for the environment (Millennium Ecosystem Assessment 2005), exces-
sively consuming key resources, such as soil and water mostly, underutilising 'waste' streams
and thus polluting other resource bases (Box 18.1). It is in this context of current global land
use that organic farming systems should be evaluated. Kasperczyk and Knickel (see
Chapter
12
) found that organic agriculture provided several environmental benefits including lower
pesticide pollution, enhanced biodiversity and ecological services, improved soil health (i.e.
organic matter, biological activity, nutrient cycles, erosion risk), and strong links between
organic farmers and nature conservation activities (also see Lohr 2005). However, definite
conclusions cannot be made for many places around the world because of the absence of data.
