Agriculture Reference
In-Depth Information
Table 17.2
Three perspectives of learning (after Hakkarainen et al. 2004)
Knowledge
acquisition
Participation
Knowledge creation
Main focus
Adoption of subject-
matter knowledge
Participation in social
communities,
enculturation
Methods and practices of
knowledge formation,
discovery and innovation
Theoretical
foundations
Didactic theories and
theories of knowledge
structures
Situated and distributed
cognition, some
sociocultural theories
Activity theory, knowledge
creating organisations and
knowledge-building theory
Unit of
analysis
Individuals
Communities, networks,
cultures
Activity systems, networks,
knowledge building
communities
sion, a transfer of technology (TOT) model, is one illustration of this perspective. It assumes
pre-given knowledge structures that the learner is instructed to assimilate.
An alternative perspective is participation, a process that emphasises the role of social com-
munities. Learning is viewed as participation within the context of shared activities. Through
participation, people learn to become full members of a community, and simultaneously
develop and reshape their identities. Knowledge, according to this view, does not exist as such
in the world or only in the individual's mind; rather it is one dimension of participation in a
culture in different ways (Hakkarainen
et
al
. 2004).
Although both of the previous perspectives may include certain innovative elements,
neither of them focuses on the creation and development of knowledge. Therefore, Hakkara-
inen
et
al
. (2004) introduce the perspective of knowledge creation. Its aim is both to create new
knowledge and to develop corresponding social practices. In this process, the existing knowl-
edge is essentially enriched or shaped (as summarised in Table 17.2).
Hakkarainen
et
al
. (2004) see that all three perspectives are necessary for understanding
learning and the authors think all three can be used in designing education. Each has strengths
and weaknesses. Knowledge acquisition is most often applied in agricultural extension and
education, and many conventional extension programs in Nebraska are very much like class-
room lectures, including the PowerPoint© presentations. Most field tours are actually lectures
in the field. In organic agriculture education and training, this approach can help build our
farmers' knowledge base. Information may include basic ecological principles of nutrient min-
eralisation, adaptation of varieties, appropriate pest management for organic systems or details
on new regulations and requirements.
As the review in this Chapter of characteristics and challenges in organic farming suggests,
the acquisition of ready-made knowledge is likely to be insufficient for learning organic agri-
culture. The participation perspective has importance in organic farming in terms of activism,
which means that organic farmers often have a need to take part in different communities and
networks that support this way of farming. The participation perspective views a workshop or
a training session as an opportunity for building social communities and cultural identities.
This implies that it is often good to cooperate with farmers in planning education and training.
Participation perspective is also involved in hands-on training such as on-farm trials or other
types of material experimentation.
Organic farms often require diverse and appropriate solutions that are location specific,
and organic agriculture needs to face many challenges in a dynamic way. Therefore, the authors
suggest that knowledge creation is a necessary perspective for learning in organic agriculture.
The knowledge-creation paradigm requires that there are deliberate efforts to extend current
knowledge. Theoretical and generalised knowledge of researchers and extension workers can
