Agriculture Reference
In-Depth Information
much of what is available is quickly assembled and has little basis in adult education and learning
theories. An example is the program for organic farmers in Nebraska Cooperative Extension
(Francis
et
al
. 2004), with information developed almost entirely from empirical experience.
In general, organic farmers' educational needs differ substantially from those of conventional
farmers. This is because of the special characteristics of organic agriculture, its activist origin as
a social movement and recent rapid development, and its complexity, diversity and location spe-
cificity of production systems. Therefore, organic farming is considered to be a knowledge-inten-
sive endeavour rather than a traditional way of farming. Although there are some similar
questions and problems for both conventional and organic farmers, organic farmers face partic-
ular challenges that require specific information and specially designed education and training.
In this Chapter the unique characteristics and challenges of organic agriculture are explored
and discussed. These challenges need to be understood for developing both the content and
methods of efficient education for organic farmers (Seppänen 2002). Three different perspec-
tives for learning are presented: knowledge acquisition, participation and knowledge creation
(Hakkarainen
et
al
. 2004), and related to farmer training in organic agriculture. Concrete
examples from planning and conducting networks and educational programs and using
learning tools are presented. Some elements of these case examples are discussed in the context
of the three learning perspectives. The application of this theory enables ref lection, assessment
and improvement of the quality of our educational methods and strategies. The knowledge-
creation perspective seems especially important for organic farming. This Chapter ends with a
general discussion and conclusion about farmer education and training in organic agriculture.
Characteristics and challenges of organic farming
Actiism and dynamic change
Organic agriculture developed as a social movement based on and involving joint efforts by
many different interests: farmers, consumers and traders, as well as scientists and ordinary
citizens (Michelsen 2001a). The first underpinning principles (Woodward and Vogtmann
2004) were:
1 the concept of a farm as a living organism, tending toward a closed system but responsive
and adapted to its own environment;
2 the concept of soil fertility through a
living
soil
that has the capacity to influence and
transmit health through the food chain to plants, animals and humans; and
3 the notion of a whole system with a dynamic interplay among its parts and within its
environment.
Organic agriculture advocates and practitioners showed a strong desire to change some parts of
conventional agriculture, and thus they were considered to be critical of certain elements of
mainstream agriculture (Michelsen 2001a). Although organic agriculture is now being institu-
tionalised as part of agricultural policies and regulated by national and international legislation,
many scholars see that organic agriculture still maintains its own value-based, movement kind of
activism (Goodman 1999, Vos 2000, Kirschenmann 2000). Michelsen (2001b) studied the
organic movement's desire for
self-regulation
and its possibilities in the regulated context of the
EU. The activist character of organic agriculture is reflected in the social relationships organic
farmers have with extension specialists, inspectors, researchers and consumers (Michelsen 2001b,
Seppänen 2004). This has important implications for training and education.
Together with institutionalisation during the 1990s, environmental concerns have increased
in significance in organic agriculture and changed its character, especially in the EU. In
