Agriculture Reference
In-Depth Information
tistics are adequate for analysing the effects of one or two factors, they are weak in the evalua-
tion of multifactor changes, and especially in the analysis of whole systems. Choosing
appropriate indicators of system performance brings in further complications, when the need
for multiple evaluation criteria beyond crop yields and single-season net economic returns is
embraced. For example, when the impact of systems on the environment, long-term sustaina-
bility of yields and income, and distribution of benefits from agricultural production are
included, it becomes essential to consider new systems assessment criteria and methods to
simultaneously evaluate their impacts on alternative system performance. A detailed analysis
that includes such a wide range of factors provides the challenge of internalising as many costs
as possible in the system and looking at long-term sustainability. For example, to evaluate the
contributions of a multifunctional rural landscape to society, beyond the production of food
and fibre, it is important to identify and especially to quantify the most meaningful indicators
of system performance and success.
In addition to conventional scientific research approaches, the importance of practical
experience of farmers in providing an additional base of information for ecological agriculture
systems design is recognised. The recognition of local and experience-based knowledge also
leads to applications in participatory research methods. Development work in some countries
over recent decades has highlighted the need to understand farmers' worldviews and has led to
the emergence of participation as a key feature of a farming systems approaches to research
and extension.
Methods from the social sciences are useful for collecting and evaluating information on
performance and decision making, leading to the design of alternative systems. Such experi-
ence-derived methods and results are included in the educational process. Use of surveys,
focus groups, personal interviews with farmers and applied projects in the conversion process
from conventional to organic systems are among the research techniques that can supplement
our conventional repertoire of biological and economic science methods. Students from agri-
cultural science with little prior experience in social science methods often find these research
techniques valuable in helping explain facets of their results and conclusions, and understand-
ing the social relevance of their research. This has been an important dimension of the NOVA
University PhD courses held in Norway (Lieblein
et
al
. 1999). These dimensions of agricultural
research are important to learning about integrated systems, not only to organic farming. Such
methods help prepare the agroecologist who finishes the educational program to move directly
into the professional world (Lieblein
et
al
. 2004). An additional benefit from this mode of
research is increased understanding and respect for the rationale, values and goals of the
farmers and other participants in farming and food systems.
A breakdown of rural communities has taken place in the Nordic region. In Finland, for
example, in their '100-hectare loneliness', the remaining farm families now run their mecha-
nised farms in an industrial mode. As recently as 20 years ago, there were rural communities
with an average farm size of 10 ha. With fewer farms and a reduced rural population, there is
loss of infrastructure and services for those who remain, further accelerating the move to
urban areas. The overall situation adds external cost to the farming and food sectors, but often
the cost is borne by society in the form of subsidies from the federal government or the EU, or
they are passed on to future generations.
A similar example is found in the industrialised agriculture in the USA's Midwest. There is
continuing consolidation of farms into larger economic units and less reliance on the local
economy and community, a prime example of an agricultural system whose negative social
impacts will be felt. With a median farmer age of 58 years, over half of the farmers are likely to
retire within the next decade. It is difficult for a young farmer to begin on a large scale, and thus
most are excluded from the opportunity to enter agriculture. Most land that comes available
