Agriculture Reference
In-Depth Information
Although omitted antibiotic treatment is often mentioned by veterinarians as a problem, it
does not appear as higher somatic cell counts or incidences of mastitis (e.g. Vaarst and Benneds-
gaard 2001, Hamilton
et
al
. 2002). Other methods seem to be applied instead, and antibiotic
treatment is still used for the severe cases. Thus, this problem may be overestimated, although
practices differ among countries.
Overall, it appears that organic farming does not have a general welfare problem, but rather
provides an opportunity to improve welfare if the correct management systems are used.
However, there are certain areas or dilemmas that need to be addressed.
Organic farming and the traditional animal protection
moements
The animal protection movements and organic farming movements have different back-
grounds and history. While the former traditionally focus on the welfare of individual animals
and animal experimentation, most of the welfare concerns of the early 'alternative' agriculture
movements focused on the negative effects of industrialised animal production. Just as the
topic
Silent
Spring
(Carson 1962) became an environmental alarm clock,
Animal
Machines
(Harrison 1964) had similar effects regarding livestock production. These publications con-
tributed to the interest in alternative ways to practice agriculture that grew during the late
1960s, mainly out of an interest in environmental issues and a wish to create an alternative
livelihood. While most animal protection movements have grown out of a concern for the
welfare of the individual animal, the organic movement has considered animal welfare in
relation to the agroecosystem of which the animals are part. In an interview study, organic
pioneers saw welfare as a spin-off effect of a well-functioning system (Lund
et
al
. 2003). This
attitude was confirmed in a questionnaire study, where the concept of natural living came out
as much more central to organic farmers than concepts heralded by animal protection move-
ments, such as 'rights', 'dignity' and 'intrinsic value' (Lund
et
al
. 2004).
However, as the awareness and knowledge of farm animal welfare has grown, cooperation
between traditional animal welfare organisations and organic organisations has increased.
Today there exist joint certification programs, for example in Canada (Stoneman and Mowbray
2002) and in the German-speaking countries in Europe (H.-G. Kessler pers. comm. 2005), and
the Humane Society of the United States have a section for Farm Animals and Sustainable
Agriculture.
Future research needs
Animal welfare is important to organic farmers, to consumers of organic products and not
least to organic animals, and thus it is important to be able to guarantee the welfare of organi-
cally produced animals, but further research on such production systems is needed.
The differences in understanding of the animal welfare concept compared to conventional
systems need further clarification so that indicators of welfare suitable for organic production
systems can be developed. Such indicators will make it possible for the certifying organisations
to measure and also to communicate the welfare status of organic farms to the consumers. For
the farmers it will be an aid in evaluating whether they reach the goals of organic farming.
Research is also needed to solve the welfare dilemmas organic farming is facing. This will
involve addressing welfare problems connected to the lack of control and the freedom of
natural living. These studies will include issues such as how to avoid parasite infections, feather
pecking and cannibalism in poultry, and piglet mortality in outdoor systems. Another crucial
research area is how to handle the risk of spreading zoonotic diseases through organic produc-
tion systems. Further, the dilemma of system versus individual welfare must be solved; for
