Agriculture Reference
In-Depth Information
what 'good quality of life' should imply for animals. Since there is no 'right' definition, it is
necessary to be explicit in how the concept is defined for each individual case.
A second issue is that any production system has its weaknesses and its strengths, such as
revealed in the introductory example with the two dog owners and their dogs mentioned
earlier. In organic farming, many of the problems stemming from intensive production and
crowded conditions are absent or at least less frequent. Problems of abnormal animal behav-
iours (e.g. tail biting in pigs), extreme production targets, or feeding regimens not adapted to
the biology of the animals are less likely to be found, as are 'production' diseases such as respi-
ratory diseases associated with crowding and housing (see also Sundrum 2001). Instead,
problems are connected with less disease control (e.g. parasite infections in outdoor produc-
tion) and the creation of greater risks associated with allowing the animals a more natural and
less restricted life. Different attitudes and strategies for management and feeding among
organic farmers may also result in other types of welfare problems in organic systems compared
to conventional systems.
Third, organic animal husbandry does not have a long tradition and is therefore still being
developed, with research efforts needed to identify and improve practices that may cater to the
welfare needs of individual animals. It also takes time to 'convert' the thinking of (previously
conventional) farmers to develop the skills necessary to manage a production system such as
organic farming that is reliant on biological and ecological services to achieve production
objectives. Therefore, not only the current situation is of interest, but also the welfare potential
of organic systems should be considered. The organic standards have a substantial welfare
potential. For example, they are generally more far-reaching and detailed than the animal
welfare legislation in many countries, including requirements regarding environment enrich-
ment and access to pasture. It can be argued that animals that live in stimulating environ-
ments (that usually applies to free-range conditions) where they can behave naturally are more
likely to have better welfare than animals kept in barren environments. Organic standards
often restrict or ban mutilations such as tail docking, castration and beak trimming, and
several certifying organisations (including the EU regulations) also require humane treatment
during transport and slaughter.
Dilemmas
There are welfare dilemmas that organic farming needs to address. The conf lict between
system wellbeing and individual welfare has already been discussed. Another dilemma caused
by the ecocentric approach (and another reason why animal welfare in organic farming has
been criticised) is the conf lict between the natural living principles versus individual welfare
interpreted in terms of 'prevention of suffering' or 'promotion of health'. The high value placed
on natural living by organic producers implies that a more natural (and thus less controlled)
environment is preferred to a well-controlled environment where the animal is protected from
dangers but is less able to have a 'natural' life. Thus, organic systems stipulate free-range
systems for poultry even though outbreaks of feather pecking or cannibalism can cause con-
siderable damage in such systems (Bilcik and Keeling 1999). Organic poultry production was
criticised in the mid-1990s by the Danish Ethical Council, who identified mortality figures in
organic systems as being twice those of conventional poultry herds (Danish Ethical Council
Concerning Animals 1995). However at the same time, risk of cannibalism outbreaks can be
reduced by inclusion of management options such as provision of foraging opportunities in
free-range systems (e.g. Wechsler and Huber-Eicher 1998). Further examples of this dilemma
are the preference for natural mating, although artificial insemination programs are superior
with regard to disease resistance and elimination of deformities, and the principle of outdoor
grazing is favoured in spite of higher risks for parasitic diseases such as
Coccidiosis
and
Ascarid
infections in poultry, piroplasmosis in cattle, and trichinosis and
Erysipelas
infections in pigs.
