Agriculture Reference
In-Depth Information
tuberculosis) are risks to free-ranging birds. A recent example of disease outbreaks involving
migrating birds occurred in July 2005, with concern expressed regarding the free-range status
of organic poultry f flocks in Europe following the outbreaks of avian f flu in Asia, Russia and
Kazakhstan. Organic and other free-range systems present both positive and negative welfare
consequences compared with caged and confined poultry. Kristensen (1998) demonstrated that
the mortality of organic laying hens in Denmark is 15% to 20% (4-5% in conventional battery
cages; 9-10% in free-range production according to unpublished data from the Danish Poultry
Council 1997), where later (unpublished) studies show considerably lower mortality on organic
farms. Lampkin (1997) identified coccidiosis, external parasites, feather pecking and cannibal-
ism as significant potential problems in organic and other free-range systems, where beak
trimming is not allowed and not regarded as a suitable way of managing the problem. These
problems are confirmed in more recent European studies. Some degree of feather pecking may
be a natural preening process, but under less optimal conditions it results in considerable health
and welfare problems. Breed and poultry strain are also important in relation to these problems.
Feeding roughage and offering the poultry good outdoor conditions (shelter, shade, possibilities
for dust bathing and areas with vegetation) can significantly reduce problems of excessive
feather pecking and cannibalism. Nutritional deficiencies (e.g. lack of essential amino acids),
unsatisfactory housing conditions and overcrowding can increase the problem. Bestman (2000)
showed that farmers' understanding of the requirements of the birds was essential, so that they
could adjust the system to the poultry's natural behaviour in an appropriate way. Organic
rearing is important for the production of poultry, which should live their adult life under
organic conditions. This means that chickens are reared on the f floor (Gunnarsson
et
al
. 1999
2000), as cage-adapted birds may not adapt to the f floor under organic conditions and may
develop feather pecking. In production of broilers (table hens), coccidiosis and breast blister
seem to be the major disease problems (Pedersen
et
al
. 2003).
Animal nutrition and feeding: the challenges of organic farming
A healthy well-balanced feed ration is crucial for health and welfare in animal herds. Follow-
ing the principles for organic livestock production about naturalness, supporting the species-
specific characteristics of animals, and at the same time emphasising local production,
minimal transport and outdoor life, present many challenges to create a well-balanced animal
production system (Zollitch
et
al
. 2004). As discussed by Hörning (see
Chapter 6
), certified
organic herds mainly rely on breeds and breeding goals of conventional herds, which may
create a potential conf lict because:
1 The conventional breeding goals often aim at high production levels, which may compro-
mise natural behaviour or other breeding goals or characteristics (e.g. strong legs).
2 Feeding animals in accordance with their natural need (e.g. supporting ruminating through
feeding in ruminants), attempting to support a production level that is physiologically
feasible and still allowing natural behaviour, growth, reproduction and longevity in the
herd. But feeding animals with genetic potential for high production according to guide-
lines of organic farming may not meet the animals' nutritional requirements and in this
way may compromise their welfare.
So, in summary, the challenge of feeding the animals organically is to reach a quantity and
quality of organic feedstuffs that supports the animals' physiology and production. At the
same time, the ways of feeding (e.g. accessibility causing minimum stress in the animals) are
adjusted to the changing situations of the animals (e.g. from dry period to lactation), and
giving them maximum freedom of choice is also crucial for their wellbeing and performance.
