Agriculture Reference
In-Depth Information
Health risks
Conf licts may occur between animal welfare, health, productivity or environmental protec-
tion. The guidelines for organic livestock farming aim to offer animals the opportunity to
fulfil their behaviour requirements. However, some alternative systems may impose additional
health risks. Health problems such as mastitis in dairy cows, endoparasites and feather pecking
are common on many organic farms (e.g. Thamsborg
et
al
. 2004). For example, organic
bedding materials may favour the growth of mastitis bacteria. Access to organic materials like
bedding in the sleeping area or on the earth in outside areas may favour endoparasitic infec-
tion of many species. Housing of poultry in large groups may enhance the risk of feather
pecking. The solution may not be to eliminate these risk factors because of the risk that behav-
ioural problems will occur, but to reduce the risks with appropriate measures like good quality
bedding, pasture changes or recreation possibilities. For example, Bestman and Wagenaar
(2003) found that on Dutch organic farms the presence of cocks and rearing of pullets at the
farm in outdoor runs reduced the risk of feather pecking in layers. Herd management and
human-animal relationships are important inf luences in reducing the risk of injuries in loose
housing of horned dairy cows (Menke
et
al
. 1999).
Environmental pollution
Housing systems for farm animals could lead to environmental pollution via gases, dust and
odours. All intensive housing systems produce slurry or liquid manure. Many straw-based
systems comprise production of solid manure. Emissions could occur from the stable through
dung storage and dung spreading. Straw-based systems result in higher dust concentrations in
the stable and therefore in higher emission rates. However, odour emissions are higher in
slurry systems. Ammonia (NH
3
) emissions are higher from solid manure storage, presuming
that storage facilities for liquid manure are covered. If slurry is not introduced directly into the
soil, ammonia emissions will be higher when spreading slurry than solid manure. Methane
emissions are also higher in slurry-based systems. However, nitrous oxide emissions seem to
be higher from solid manure systems (i.e. deep litter, straw yard) (e.g. Kuczynski
et
al
. 2005).
Additional ammonia emissions can come from covered yards. Covered yards are additional
emitting areas for ammonia emissions. Furthermore, increased pen or outside yard areas will
increase emissions. Again, instead of reverting to conventional housing systems, the solution
could be to decrease potential emissions within the given system (e.g. via cold temperatures,
increasing the frequency of cleaning).
Profitability
In many cases, welfare-friendly systems mean higher investment or labour costs. The conver-
sion of intensive to welfare-appropriate housing is often connected with high investment costs
(e.g. conversion from stanchion barns to loose housing systems for cattle). However, within a
given space, appropriate systems could be less expensive than intensive systems (no slurry
channels, less technical facilities, no insulation). However, space per animal in appropriate
systems is greater than in intensive systems, so this advantage could be counteracted. On the
other hand, energy costs could be lower (reduced heating and/or ventilation in non-insulated,
straw-based systems), although straw-based systems are connected with a higher labour
requirement than systems without straw because of straw harvesting, transport, and rebed-
ding. Exercise yard cleaning also means additional labour requirements. The higher invest-
ment or labour costs could be balanced by lower energy costs, better health and performance.
However, in many cases, the productivity of organic livestock production systems is often
lower than conventional systems because, for example, of the lower stocking rate with regard
to arable land (e.g. Nicholas
et
al
. 2004). Therefore, higher prices or subsidies will be necessary
to keep profitability at an acceptable level.
