Agriculture Reference
In-Depth Information
Hermansen
et
al
. 2000, Thamsborg
et
al
. 2000, Younie and Wilkinson 2001, Kyriazakis and
Zervas 2002).
Willer and Yussefi (2004) provide information about the state of organic agriculture world-
wide. However, the data presented mainly deal with the number of farms and the size and
respective percentage of land under organic management. Information about the volume of
animal production is lacking. Foster and Lampkin (2000) published some data about certified
organic livestock in Europe between 1993 and 1998 (dairy cows, other cattle, pigs, poultry,
sheep, goats), but not in relation to farm sizes.
Percentages of organically kept animals presumably differ between animal species, at least
in countries with intensive animal production. In Germany for example, 17% of all beef cows
were kept organically in the year 2002, 8% of sheep, 7% of geese, but less than 2% of pigs or
other poultry species (Goessler 2004). Similar tendencies were found in 1998 for other
European countries (Foster and Lampkin 2000). Pigs and poultry are kept more intensively
under conventional production (e.g. stocking densities, housing conditions, feed origin). These
farms have thus more difficulties converting to organic agriculture. Beef or sheep farms are
often managed relatively extensively so that they can be converted more easily.
The International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements (IFOAM) standards are
valid for all member organisations and the farmers belonging to them (IFOAM 2002). These
standards include the general principles, minimum requirements, recommendations and der-
ogations (i.e. formal substitution of an organic input with a conventional input where no
organic input can be found). The IFOAM standards provide a framework for regulation; there-
fore, member organisations can pass stronger guidelines. Another type of a more general
standard is the Codex Alimentarius of the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the
United Nations (Joint FAO-WHO Food Standards Programme 1999). The EU regulations con-
cerning organic livestock production (EUR-Lex 1999, 2003) are obligatory for all producers in
EU countries that want to sell their livestock products as 'organically produced'. All countries
that intend to export organic products to the EU must meet these requirements.
Standards for organic animal husbandry have not been considered as explicitly by the
organic movement as the standards for organic plant production. This could be explained by
the organic movement having started with soil and plant production ('produce healthy plants
on healthy soils').
Housing
Livestock housing can be defined as 'the way that animals are accommodated on a farm'. This
can include both stables or pasture systems. In a broader sense, housing covers all factors that
could inf luence the animal, including handling by humans, transport and slaughtering. Fur-
thermore, inf luences from animal housing on the environment are considered, especially
pollution.
An overview of animal welfare in organic farming by Vonne Lund is presented elsewhere
(see
Chapter
8
). Animal welfare is reduced in conventional intensive housing systems because
of high densities and lack of stimuli like straw, and this may lead to behavioural disturbances,
injuries or some diseases. Livestock housing on organic farms should allow for the behavioural
requirements of different farm animal species, facilitate efficient management, and use envi-
ronmentally friendly construction materials and methods.
It is possible to draw some conclusions from the natural behaviour of farm animals to
determine the most appropriate housing conditions (Tables 6.1-6.3).
