Agriculture Reference
In-Depth Information
of the technology cannot be guaranteed. From a holistic point of view, genetic engineering is
based on a way of thinking that is characteristic of the physicochemical sciences. By formulat-
ing the question of risks in terms of holistic risk perception, the argument turns from an
extrinsic one into an intrinsic one.
Incompatibility with the principles of sustainable agriculture
This argument is problematic as long as these principles are not made explicit. Behind differ-
ent meanings of sustainability are different views on the human relation to nature. The appli-
cation of the industrial approach to living systems is felt to be 'unnatural' in organic agriculture,
not fitted to the nature of living systems (Verhoog 2002/2003; Verhoog
et al
. 2003). In the
industrial approach, the tendency is towards full control over nature (anthropocentric
attitude); nature in some sense is eliminated. Its opposite is pristine nature, that is, untouched
by human beings. But it is impossible to speak about 'pristine nature' in connection with agri-
culture, because every form of agriculture means interference in nature.
One way to describe the position of organic agriculture is to say that nature and culture are
seen as two poles of a polarity relation, and both poles have to be cared for. We could call this
the integration of nature and culture or agri-culture, but one that respects the independence,
intrinsic value and autonomy of nature and of all living beings (biocentric approach). This
manifests itself in various ways, which lead to further arguments against genetic engineering:
• The use of natural, rather than synthetic substances. The gene constructs put into
organisms to create GMOs are synthetic constructs, not natural substances. The most
important difference with traditional breeding is the direct interference in the genome of
plants and animals by forcefully introducing artificial and synthetic gene constructs (that
can only be created in an artificial environment
in vitro
). These gene constructs are
human inventions. And in general (non-evolutionary time scales), the gene constructs
contain genes that would never be transferred by natural means (transgenesis).
• Stimulation of the self-regulation of organisms and the ecosystem (using natural
processes). In organic agriculture genetic engineering is seen as a technology that forces
the organisms to do what humans want, instead of eliciting a reaction in which the natural
entity retains its relative independence as a partner. Illustrative is the way humans have
dealt with reproduction in the process of domestication of cows (and other domestic
animals). Step by step (artificial selection - artificial insemination - embryo transplantation
- genetic modification and cloning) the animal's own role in reproduction, its
independence, is taken away from it and brought under human control (Verhoog 2003).
• Respect for the specific characteristics ('nature') or intrinsic value of plant and animal
species, (agro-)ecosystems and landscapes. This is another reference to the
acknowledgement of the independence of nature, but now at a moral level. In this moral
context also the word 'integrity' is used. Lammerts van Bueren
et al
. (2003b) explained
that the integrity of plants refers to their nature or way of being, their wholeness,
completeness, their species-specific characteristics and their being in balance with the
species-specific environment. When integrity refers to the specific 'nature' of plants (or
animals), different levels of integrity can be distinguished: integrity of life, plant-specific
integrity, genotypic integrity and phenotypic integrity. With this moral instrument the
authors have assessed different plant breeding and propagation techniques, to find out
whether they respect the integrity of plants. The outcome is that techniques at DNA level
(e.g. protoplast fusion, genetic modification) violate all levels of the nature (integrity) of
plants. The conclusion is that genetic engineering is not compatible with the intrinsic
value of plants.
