Ecological Literacy - Agri-culture: Reconnecting People, Land and Nature - page 153

of individuals. They give individuals the confidence to invest in collective
or group activities, knowing that others will do so, too. Individuals can
take responsibility and ensure that their rights are not infringed upon.
Mutually agreed sanctions ensure that those who break the rules know
that they will be punished. These rules of the game, also called the internal
morality of a social system, the cement of society, and the basic values
that shape beliefs, reflect the degree to which individuals agree to mediate
their own behaviour. Formal rules are those that are set out by authorities,
such as laws and regulations, while informal ones shape our everyday
actions. Norms are, by contrast, preferences and indicate how we should
act. High social capital implies high internal morality, with individuals
balancing individual rights with collective responsibilities. 11
Connectedness, networks and groups, and the nature of relationships,
are the fourth feature of social capital. Connections are manifested in
many different ways, such as the trading of goods, the exchange of infor-
mation, mutual help, the provision of loans, and common celebrations
and rituals. They may be one way or two way, and may be long established,
therefore not responding to current conditions or subject to regular
update. Connectedness is institutionalized in different types of groups
at the local level, from guilds and mutual aid societies to sports clubs and
credit groups; from forest, fishery or pest management groups to literary
societies and mothers' groups. High social capital also implies a likelihood
of multiple membership of organizations and good links between groups.
In one context, there may be numerous organizations, but each protects
its own interests with little cross-contact. Thus, organizational density is
high, but inter-group connectedness low. In another context, a better form
of social capital implies high organizational density and many cross-
organizational links. 12
Connectivity has many types of horizontal and vertical configuration.
It can refer to social relationships at community level, as well as between
government ministries. It also refers to connectedness between people and
the state. 13 Even though some agencies may recognize the value of social
capital, it is rare to find all of these connections being emphasized. For
example, a government may stress the importance of integrated approaches
between different sectors, but fail to encourage two-way vertical connect-
ions with local groups. Another may emphasize the formation of local
associations without building their linkages upwards to other external
agencies. In general, two-way relationships are better than those that are
one way, and linkages that are regularly updated are generally better than
historically embedded ones.