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very end of the research (including the write-up stage). This allowed me to take advantage
of emergent themes, to acquire data continuously and to maximise observation oppor-
tunities.
All interviews were recorded in both digital and analogue forms. The tape recording
was then transcribed and ATLAS.ti, a software application for qualitative data analysis,
facilitated
open coding
and other coding activities.
6
Open coding involves 'running the
data open'; that is, analysing the data to extract a set of categories and their properties.
This is done by coding for as many categories as possible
without a preconceived set of
codes
(Glaser, 1978). During open coding, I labelled the text of each interview, detecting
new lines of enquiry, which guided subsequent data acquisition activity. Open coding
generated 337 codes.
The writing of
theoretical memos
starts almost in parallel with open coding. Because
memos are 'the theorising write up of ideas about codes and their relationships as they
strike the analyst while coding' (Glaser, 1978, p. 83), memos are produced constantly
in grounded theory, from the beginning of the analysis process until reaching closure,
capturing the thoughts of analysts while they progress through the work. Memos raise
the theoretical level via a continuous process of comparison and conceptualisation. They
also provide freedom, flexibility, and enhance creativity (Glaser, 1978; Urquhart, 2001).
As codes and memos accumulated, I started to perceive relationships between them.
This process, called
theoretical coding
, conceptualised the interrelation of substantive
codes by generating hypotheses for integration into a theory. Therefore, theoretical
codes emerged from open coding and theoretical memos, weaving a new story from the
fragmentation of open coding (as suggested by Lehmann, 2001b). The grounded integ-
ration of concepts is a flexible activity that provides broad pictures and new perspectives.
However flexible, theoretical codes
must
remain grounded on data, they cannot be empty
abstractions. The concept of flexibility implies theoretical sensitivity to a number of
possible coding paradigms, or coding families, consciously avoiding over-focusing on
one possible explanation. Glaser (1978; 1998) provides a comprehensive (but not defin-
itive) list of code families allowing for this flexibility.
The emergence of a pattern, in my study's case 'resolving conflicts', marks the beginning
of
selective coding
. This process refers to delimiting the theory to one or two core vari-
able(s) which act as a guide for further data collection and analysis (Glaser, 1978 p. 61-
72). By doing so, the research focused on one of the several basic social processes or
conditions that are present in the data. The delimitation of the analysis to those significant
variables affecting the core variable contributes to parsimonious theory (Glaser and
Strauss, 1967).
At this stage in the process, the role of the
extant literature
becomes very important be-
cause researchers need to acquire sensitivity and knowledge on grounded concepts. The
literature is therefore read as a source of more data to be compared with existing
grounded data. For example, in my study, readings about trust, shared mental models,
conflict, psychological contracts, transaction cost economics, and organisational psycho-
logy raised the theoretical level and improved construct definitions (as suggested by
Eisenhardt, [1989]). Most of these readings were outside the substantive area of research,
yet they were made relevant by the actors' main concerns and the emerging theory.
6
ATLAS.ti stands for 'Archiv fuer Technik, Lebenswelt und Alltagssprache' (archive for technology, the life environment
and everyday language). The extension 'ti' stands for text interpretation. Technical University of Berlin's Project ATLAS
(1989-1992) produced the first prototype of the software (source:
http://www.atlasti.de/faq.shtml#acronym ,
accessed 20
October 2002).
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