Information Technology Reference
In-Depth Information
Characteristics and mechanics of open systems
The concept of equilibrium and steady state conditions need to be clarified before we
go further into how open systems operate. In a closed system, equilibrium is achieved
when opposing variables in the system are in balance (Miller, 1978). In addition, the
equilibrium can be static or dynamic. The former is commonly found in closed systems
while the latter is a property of an open system. Since living systems are open systems,
with a recurrent alteration of fluxes of matter, energy, and information, their equilibrium
is dynamic. Miller (1978) termed the dynamic equilibrium a 'flux equilibria' or 'steady
state'. The term dynamic equilibrium has, however, also been utilised interchangeably
in both closed and open systems (Bertalanffy, 1973). We argue that both closed and open
systems can exhibit equilibrium; however, in the latter case, the equilibrium is 'quasi'
rather than being a true one as in closed systems.
In the previous paragraph, a steady state was characterised as a dynamic equilibrium
that exists in open systems. According to Kramer and De Smith (1977), a steady state
refers to an open system maintaining an unchanging state even when input and output
are still in operation. This makes the system appear static to the observer despite the
fact that the flow of resources through the system is dynamic and continuous. A popular
example of this is the maintenance of the human body temperature at 37° Celsius. In
this case, the amount of heat generated by the body's metabolism is kept equal to the
heat lost to the environment. As a result, a constant body temperature can be maintained.
The most important quality of an open system is that it can perform work, which is
unachievable in a closed system in an equilibrium state because a closed system in
equilibrium does not need energy for the preservation of its state, nor can energy be
obtained from it. In order for it to perform work, it is necessary that an open system is
not in an equilibrium state. Nevertheless, the system has a tendency to attain such a
state. As a result, the equilibrium found in an organism (or any open system) is not a
true equilibrium, incapable of performing work. Rather, it is a dynamic pseudo-equilib-
rium (or quasi-equilibrium) kept constant at a certain distance from the true equilibrium.
In order to achieve this, the continuous importation of energy from the environment is
required (Bertalanffy, 1950, 1973).
The homology between an open system and human or work organisations can be drawn
from the chain of logic mentioned in the previous paragraph. A fictitious organisation,
which is largely closed to the external environment, will eventually lose its alignment
with the environment because only limited or no resources (i.e. materials, energy, and
information) from the environment are allowed to cross the boundary into the organisa-
tion. This leads to a misalignment between organisational strategy-structure and the
environment, which results in substandard performance as the acquisition and usage of
resources become inconsistent with the demand from the environment. The organisation
that persistently performs poorly will deteriorate over time and, we argue, is on the way
to equilibrium according to the second law. On the other hand, a viable organisation
needs a continuous inflow of new members for new ideas, skills and innovations, raw
materials and energy to produce new products and/or services, and new information
for reasonable planning, strategy formulation and coordination. Only the importation
of these resources from the environment can keep it away from equilibrium and can allow
it to perform its activities in a viable manner.
It should be noted at this point that the meaning of equilibrium as it is used here, is
'entropic equilibrium' in which equilibrium is maintained at the expense of structure
(Grey, 1974; Van Gigch, 1978). In other words, the system's structure and organisation
Search WWH ::
Custom Search