Database Reference
In-Depth Information
average person. This characteristic goes for the group (i.e., people living in that
particular neighbourhood), for the individuals as members of that group (i.e., ran-
domly chosen people living in the neighbourhood), but not necessarily for the in-
dividuals as such (i.e., for John, Mary and William who all live in the same
neighbourhood). When individuals are judged by group characteristics they do not
possess as individuals, this may negatively affect them (Custers 2010).
Group profiling may not only have direct negative effects on individuals, but
may also lead to stigmatisation of group members. Moreover, divisions into
groups can damage societal cohesion. When group profiles, whether correct or
not, become public knowledge, people may start treating each other accordingly.
For instance, when people start believing that individuals from a particular
neighbourhood default their loans more often, they may conclude that those indi-
viduals live in a 'bad' neighbourhood.
7.2.3 Stereotyping
Closely related to the risk of de-individualisation and stigmatisation is that of
stereotyping. A profile casts us on the basis of predetermined categories (e.g.,
'valuable customer', 'young urban professional', but also 'security risk' or 'dodgy
debtor'). For a profiling exercise to remain effective and efficient there are a finite
number of general categories. These profiles are, almost by definition, incapable
of accurately reflecting all the nuances of our personality. As such, the profile we
fit will become a stereotype on the basis of which we are judged. Moreover, these
profiles can also make it more difficult for a person to 'escape' the stereotype.
7.2.4 Information Asymmetries
A fourth risk associated with profiling is that it can lead to information asymme-
tries. In other words, through profiling, the position of the data controller im-
proves with regard to the data at his disposal, whereas that of the data subject re-
mains the same. This is a particular issue when the data subject is unaware of the
profiling exercise, or does not have complete information about the profiling exer-
cise. Information asymmetries may lead to an imbalance in the playing field be-
tween government and citizens, and between businesses and consumers, upsetting
the current balance of power between different parties.
In the context of the relation between government and citizens, information
asymmetries can also affect individual autonomy. If data mining indeed yields in-
formation the government can act upon, the government will have more power.
Moreover, the fear of strong data mining capabilities on the part of the govern-
ment may 'chill' the willingness of people to engage in political activities, given
the fear of being watched. For this fear to materialise, profiling does not even have
to be effective (Schermer 2007, p. 137).
In the context of the relation between businesses and consumers, information
asymmetries may lead to unfair economic practices and discriminatory pricing.
For instance, certain goods or services may be withheld from individuals, solely
on the basis of them fitting or not fitting a particular profile. It is also possible to
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