Biomedical Engineering Reference
In-Depth Information
consumer level. The virus has been implicated in an outbreak associated with the
consumption of oysters (Le Guyader et al.
2008
) and has been linked to other
incidences of gastroenteritis (Oh et al.
2006
), although the food source was not
determined. The virus is stable on produce (Fino and Kniel
2008a
) and in shellfi sh
(Sdiri-Loulizi et al.
2010
).
Astroviruses
: This group of viruses found in the Astroviridae family was fi rst
described in 1975 by Madeley and Cosgrove (
1975
). These viruses are signifi cant
pathogens of both humans and animals (Kurtz and Lee
1987
) and have been identi-
fi ed in human outbreaks associated with foods (Le Guyader et al.
2008
; Mead et al.
1999
). The predominant route of infection is water (Abad et al.
1997
) and the virus
can persist on fomites for several days (Abad et al.
2001
), suggesting that foodborne
infections are due to improper food handling. Yet, there has also been evidence that
astroviruses can contaminate shellfi sh (Hansman et al.
2008
), suggesting a possible
foodborne route at the retail level.
Hepatitis A virus
: Also a member of the Picornaviridae family, HAV is a well-
recognized cause of foodborne disease (Fiore
2004
; Sanchez et al.
2007
). The virus
is abundant worldwide and present in many regions of the world including devel-
oped countries such as Italy (Campagna et al.
2012
) and The Netherlands (Whelan
et al.
2013
). Studies in the laboratory have shown that HAV is highly stable in the
environment (Siegl et al.
1984
) and can easily be found in shellfi sh growing in con-
taminated waters (Diez-Valcarce et al.
2012
). In agricultural settings, the virus can
be internalized into produce such as spinach (Hirneisen and Kniel
2013
), tomatoes
(Carvalho et al.
2012
), and strawberries (Niu et al.
1992
). While there is ample evi-
dence to suggest that the virus can easily be involved in retail as a result of improper
food processing (Wang et al.
2013
), there is also signifi cant evidence showing that
the virus can also be transferred through food handling (Tricco et al.
2006
). The
virus can transfer easily through environmental surfaces, known as fomites (Abad
et al.
1994
) including knives and graters (Wang et al.
2013
), and can remain infec-
tive for several hours in acidic conditions (Scholz et al.
1989
).
Hepatitis E virus
: Initially described as a picornavirus in 1983 (Balayan et al.
1983
),
HEV has been found to represent a novel genus, Herpesvirus (Berke and Matson
2000
). Since its discovery, the virus has grown to be a major cause of hepatitis in the
developing world and its prevalence is growing in the developed world (Miyamura
2011
). Transmission is generally mediated through water, however, foodborne out-
breaks have occurred, primarily through the ingestion of improperly cooked meat
products including swine, boar, poultry, venison, ovine, and beef products (Meng
2011
). HEV has also been found in shellfi sh (Koizumi et al.
2004
; Song et al.
2010
),
in pig livers (Berto et al.
2012
; Bouwknegt et al.
2007
), and in agricultural produce
(Ceylan et al.
2003
), but the risk associated with these two routes is signifi cantly
smaller than that of livestock and game meats.
Caliciviruses
: The caliciviruses are a group of small viruses that are very stable in
the environment and pose a signifi cant threat for foodborne infection. The two
major groups of caliciviruses known to cause foodborne infection are the sapovi-
