Biology Reference
In-Depth Information
Many other academic programs in anthropology also encourage actualistic research,
although they may not have facilities dedicated specifically to taphonomic research on
human remains. Individual actualistic studies involving human or nonhuman remains
may be conducted in temporary research settings, without a fully developed facility;
however, similar legal, health, and safety considerations still must be addressed by the insti-
tution authorizing the research. Experienced advisors can be invaluable.
Pseudopathology and Pseudotrauma
Actualistic research has provided tremendous insight on certain processes, such as when
postmortem changes mimic traumatic or pathological defects and can lead to a misinterpre-
tation of the causative agent. When taphonomic features mimic the effects of traumatic insult,
this is termed
pseudotrauma
; when taphonomic changes are confused with pathological
conditions, it is called
pseudopathology
. It is critical to consider taphonomic processes in
the analysis of any defect on osseous material, and to be able to discern taphonomic damage
from traumatic defects or pathological lesions when making a
differential diagnosis
(e.g.,
see Smith [Chapter 7], this volume).
Taphonomic analysis is important in the interpretation of the overall condition of the
remains, yet some marks and features are ambiguous and difficult to classify. One highly
experienced researcher has claimed that, of seven major classes of bone modification by tooth
and tool, she is able to consistently identify only gnawing marks based on gross morphology
of the marks alone (
Shipman, 1981
). The effects of sandy or rocky substrates on bone have
been demonstrated to closely resemble the morphology of cutmarks (
Shipman, 1981;
Andrews and Cook, 1985; Behrensmeyer et al., 1986
), and naturally occurring vascular
grooves can easily be mistaken for intentional cutmarks (
D'Errico and Villa, 1997
). “Weath-
ering cracks can resemble those produced by blunt force trauma. Trampling and carnivore
chewing can cause spiral fractures similar to those caused by foul play-associated trauma.
Fungus can cause a blackening of bones that simulates burning. Carnivore tooth-marks
can appear very similar to sharp force trauma” (
Ubelaker, 1997a
:82). Water transport, sedi-
ment abrasion, avian activity, rodent or ungulate gnawing, insect activity, and root growth
can all resemble human modification of bone (
Potts and Shipman, 1981; Schrenk and
Maguire, 1988; Raemsch, 1993
; D'Errico and Villa, 1997; Sutcliffe, 1971 in
Ubelaker, 1997a
).
Layered analytic methods ranging from gross macroscopic examination to high-resolution
microscopy can provide valuable information that cannot be obtained from one method
alone. Despite the microscopic similarities between trampled bone and bone scored with
stone tools (
Shipman, 1988; Oliver, 1989
), macroscopic characteristics such as distribution
and patterning at the level of the organism or the assemblage can help to discern between
various actors/effectors. For example, archaeological assemblages of butchered bone contain
an average of 20
e
25% of bones bearing cutmarks, with most marked bones exhibiting
between one and six cutmarks, whereas trampled assemblages commonly feature a much
greater prevalence of markings and a far greater number of marks per bone
5
(
Schrenk and
Maguire, 1988
). To understand an assemblage, not only must bones be examined at the micro-
scopic level, mark by mark, but also for the frequency and distribution of cuts as they
5
A notable exception to this trend is bones that have been processed to remove the periosteum, or to
remove meat from areas of extensive muscle attachment (
Andrews and Cook, 1985; Shipman, 1988
).
