Biology Reference
In-Depth Information
autopsy. While these collections and samples certainly provide anthropologists with invalu-
able information, and the majority of this work is exceptional, research using case studies is
inherently limited. Often, there is little or no information as to the exact circumstances of the
death, or the cause of the injury being studied.
2
In recent years, there has been an increase in experimental or prospective research into
skeletal trauma using both animal models and human cadavers. While difficult and costly,
experimental research offers the opportunity to address specific questions in a very
controlled environment. There is also the ability to create replicable results over multiple
experiments. The best approach to understanding skeletal trauma from an anthropological
perspective is a combination of these two approaches: cases of known cause of death are
used to illustrate the biomechanics of bone trauma, while prospective research helps to vali-
date these examples. Each research modality offers a chance to explore different types of
questions in the field of skeletal biology.
BASIC CONCEPTS IN BONE TRAUMA
To be able to understand skeletal trauma, it is of paramount importance that anthropol-
ogists understand the fundamental basics of bone biology and biomechanics. A brief
overview is provided here to introduce key concepts, while the more comprehensive and
in-depth overviews provided by
Brinckmannetal.(2002),Cowin(1989),Evans(1970),Frost
(1967), Low and Reed (1996)
,and
Roark and Young (1975)
are recommended for further
study.
Biomechanics is the application of the biological science of forces and energies to
a living tissue. An understanding of biomechanics, as well as the biological and material
properties of bone, lends critical insight into the mechanics of fracture creation and prop-
agation. It is important for an anthropologist to recognize that the creation of injuries and
fracturesisdependentonseveralfactors.First,therearetheextrinsic factors,which
include all variables involved with how the injuries occur. It is best to conceptualize the
extrinsic variables as those that are “outside” of the body. Examples of extrinsic factors
commonly studied in the context of trauma and injury include the type of load or force
(defined in the next section) including their magnitude and rate of application (
Gonza,
1982
).
Secondly, there are intrinsic factors that shape the way the body and bone respond to
injury. These can be conceptualized as variables that are “within” the body. These intrinsic
dynamics deal with the material properties of human bone, as well as other related tissues
in the body. The material and structural properties of bone influence the creation and prop-
agation of fractures (
Gonza, 1982
). Examples of intrinsic factors include bone geometry, bone
mineralization, and bone remodeling.
2
The Crow Creek Massacre, occurring around 1350 A.D. in what is now South Dakota, is a notable
exception. A Native American raiding party slaughtered almost 500 rival villagers and dumped the bodies
in a mass grave (Zimmerman et al., 1981). In this case, contextual analysis of the remains disposition
allowed inferences about the cause and manner of death, even though death had occurred over six
centuries before the remains were analyzed.
